
Class 
Book 



: 37 



r\ 



_ ._. 



Copyright W. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



GRASSES 



AND 



HOW TO GROW THEM 

IN 

NORTH AMERICA 

By THOMAS SHAW 

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AT THE 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



AUTHOR OF 

'FORAGE CROPS OTHER THAN GRASSES' 

"THE STUDY OF BREEDS" 

'SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO" 

"ANIMAL BREEDING" ETC. 



ST. PAUL 
WEBB PUBLISHING CO. 

1903 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Gopies rtccBived 

APR 3 1905 

Gopyngnt tniiy 

OLaSS CI XAC. Nw 
6Z7W 

COPY B. 



COPYRIGHT, 1903 

BY 

W.EBB PUBLISHING CO. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In preparing this work, the author desires to acknowl- 
edge the assistance derived from "Grasses of North 
America," by W. J. Beal, "Forage Crops and Grasses," 
by Charles L. Flint, "Grasses and Clovers," by Henry 
A. Dreer, "Farmers' Book of Grasses," by D. L. Phares, 
and bulletins issued by several of the experiment sta- 
tions in the United States and Canada, also by the Unit- 
ed States Department of Agriculture. 

For the sketches, the author is indebted to Prof. A. 
M. Soule, Director Experiment Station, TCnoxville, 
Tenn., William T. Shaw, Corvallis, Oregon, and the 
Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

To all persons in the United States mho are inter- 
ested in the growing of grasses or in grazing, this ivork 
is most respectfully dedicated by the Author. 

University of Minnesota, 1903. 



THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

As is generally known a number of books have been 
written on grasses in our own country and also in 
lands beyond the sea. These furnish much valuable in- 
formation with reference to grasses, but in all or near- 
ly all of them, the tendency is to treat of grasses from 
the standpoint of the botanist rather than from that of 
the agriculturist. As far as the author has been able 
to ascertain, no book has yet been written which takes 
the economic grasses of this country in an orderly and 
comprehensive succession, and points out to the farm- 
er how to grow them. Much valuable information is 
given in the agricultural press but it is more or less 
fragmentary in character and in the nature of things 
is soon lost to the view. Certain bulletins published 
by the Agricultural Experiment Stations treat of grass- 
es, but excellent as many of these ,are for the purpose 
for which they were written, much of the information 
which they give is only applicable to limited areas. 

It will be the aim in this book to discuss all the grass- 
es at present found in the United States and Canada 
possessed of any considerable economic value, when 
viewed from the standpoint of the needs of the stock- 
man and the farmer. The discussion will include the 
characteristics of each kind of grass, its adaptation to 
climate and soil, place in the rotation, preparing the 



Vi PREFACE. 

land for the seed and sowing the same, pasturing and 
harvesting for hay and for seed and renewing the grass- 
es where this may be practicable. It will also discuss 
the questions of temporary, permanent and range pas- 
tures respectively and that of meadows and making hay. 
Although the clovers are largely grown for practically 
the same economic uses as grasses, the discussion of the 
former will be reserved for a separate volume. 

In writing the book, the aim has been to prepare a 
volume that would discriminate between the important 
and the unimportant in economic grasses, and to present 
information in an orderly and consecutive way with 
reference to the former only, that would in some meas- 
ure at least meet the needs of the farmer and the stu- 
dent of agriculture. 

University Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, 
Minn., 1903. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page 
CHAPTER I. 
Introductory 1 

CHAPTER II. 
General Principles for Growing Grasses 8 

CHAPTER III. 
Timothy 49 

CHAPTER IV. 
Kentucky Blue Grass 79 

CHAPTER V. 
Bermuda Ill 

CHAPTER VI. 
Orchard Grass 131 

CHAPTER VII. 
Red Top 147 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Russian Brome 166 

CHAPTER IX. 
Meadow Fescue 190 

CHAPTER X. 
Tall Oat Grass 206 

CHAPTER XI. 
Meadow Foxtail 222 

CHAPTER XII. 
Grasses Useful But Difficult of Eradication 232 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Rye Grasses 265 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Miscellaneous Grasses 289 

CHAPTER XV. 
Temporary Pastures 335 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Permanent Pastures 365 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Meadows and Making Hay 403 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Pastures on the Range 436 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Figure. Page. 

1. Making Hay on the Tide Lands, near Fairhaven, Puget 

Sound, Wash Frontispiece 

2. Timothy 51 "' 

3. Kentucky Blue 81 r 

4. Bermuda 114 * 

5. Bermuda Turf 125 - 

6. Orchard 133 

7. Red Top 149 ■' 

8. Russian Brome 167 

9. Meadow Fescue 191 

10. Tall Oat 207 • 

11. Meadow Foxtail 223 

12. Quack 233/ 

13. Johnson 248 

14. Western Rye 265 ^ 

15. Perennial Rye 274 

16. Texas Blue 291 

17. Rescue 310 

18. Sheep's Fescue 315 

19. Velvet 322 , 

20. Permanent Meadow on Tennessee Experiment Farm... 409 



INDEX. 

Page 

Australian Saltbush, discussion of, 326-330 

described 326 

distribution 327 

soils 328 

place in tbe rotation 328 

preparing the soil 328 

sowing 329 

pasturing 329 

harvesting for hay 330 

securing seed 330 

renewing 330 

Bermuda, discussion of, 111-130 

described 111-115 

distribution 116, 117 

soils • H? 

place in the rotation 118 

preparing the soil 119 

sowing or planting 120-122 

pasturing 123 

harvesting for hay 124 

securing seed 127 

renewing 128 

eradicating 129 

Blue Joint, discussion of, 331, 332 

Blue Grama, discussion of, 333, 334 

Carpet, discussion of 318-321 

described 318 

distribution 319 

soils 320 

place in the rotation 320 

preparing the soil 320 

sowing or planting 320 

pasturing 321 

harvesting for hay 321 

securing seed 321 

renewing 321 

Crab, discussion of 260-264 

described 260 



x INDEX. 

Page 

distribution 261 

soils 261 

place in the rotation ; 261 

preparing the soil 261 

sowing 261 

pasturing 261 

harvesting for hay 262 

securing seed 263 

methods of eradicating 263 

Fowl Meadow, discussion of, 305-309 

described 305 

distribution 305 

soils 306 

place in the rotation 306 

preparing the soil 307 

sowing 307 

pasturing 307 

harvesting for hay 308 

securing seed 308 

renewing 309 

General Principles for Growing Grasses, discussion of,. . . .8-48 

described 8, 9 

adaptation in grasses 10 

place in the rotation 11, 12 

preparing the soil 13-17 

seasons for sowing 17-19 

methods of sowing 19-23 

depth to bury seed 23-26 

methods of covering 26-28 

amounts of seed to sow 28-30 

sowing with or without a nurse crop 30-35 

sowing grasses alone or in combination 35-37 

grazing of meadows 37-39 

grazing of pastures 39-41 

renovating meadows 41-43 

renovating pastures ...••.< 43-46 

grasses as soil improvers 46-48 

Italian Rye, discussion of, 281-288 

described 281, 282 

distribution 283 

soils 284 

preparing the soil 285 

sowing 285 

pasturing 286 

harvesting for hay 286 

securing seed 287 

renewing 287 



INDEX. xi 

Page. 

Johnson, discussion of, 248-260 

described 248-250 

distribution 250 

soils 251 

place in the rotation 252 

sowing or planting 253 

pasturing 254 

harvesting for hay 255 

securing seed 256 

renewing 257 

eradicating 257, 258 

value of 259 

Kentucky Blue, discussion of, 79-110 

described 79-83 

distribution 83-85 

soils 86-88 

place in the rotation 89 

preparing the soil 90, 91 

sowing 92-96 

pasturing 97-99 

harvesting for hay 100, 101 

securing seed 101, 103 

renewing 104-108 

blue grass in lawns 109, 110 

Meadow Fescue, discussion of, 190-205 

described 190-194 

distribution 194-197 

soils 197 

place in the rotation .^. 198 

preparing the soil 199 

sowing 199-202 

pasturing 202 

harvesting for hay 203 

securing seed 204 

renewing 204 

Meadow Foxtail, discussion of, 222-231 

described 222 

distribution 225, 226 

soils 227 

place in the rotation , 227 

preparing the soil 228 

sowing 228, 229 

pasturing 230 

harvesting for hay 230 

securing seed 231 

renewing 231 

Meadows and Making Hay, discussion of, 403-435 

described 403, 404 



xii INDEX, 

Page. 

Hay crops for states and provinces ; 404 

Northeastern States 405-407 

Southeastern States 407-409 

Canadian Northwest 409 

Upper Mississippi Basin 410-412 

Irrigated Western Valleys 412 

West of the Cascades 413-417 

Miscellaneous discussions upon 417-435 

preparing the soil 417, 418 

sowing 419 

harvesting 420-422 

curing hay 422-428 

storing hay 428-431 

grazing 431-433 

fertilizing and renewing 433-435 

Orchard, discussion of, 131-146 

described '. 131, 132 

distribution 135, 136 

soils 136 

place in the rotation 137 

preparing the soil 138 

sowing 139-141 

pasturing 141, 142 

harvesting for hay 143 

securing seed 144, 145 

renewing 146 

Perennial Rye, discussion of, 273-281 

described 273-276 

distribution 276, 277 

soils ' 278 

place in the rotation 278 

preparing the soil 278 

sowing 279 

pasturing 280 

harvesting for hay 280 

securing seed 280 

renewing 281 

Permanent Pastures, discussion of, 365-402 

described 365, 366 

Different classes of 366-369 

indigenous 367 

introduced 367 

indigenous and introduced 368 

duration of 368 

Adaptation to various soils 369-373 

upland 369 

slough lands 370 

sandy lands 371 



INDEX. x iii 

Page. 

dry areas 371 

wet soils 372 

growing in shade 372 

growing in marshes 373 

States and Provinces 373-384 

Northeastern States 373-376 

Southeastern States 376-378 

Canadian Northwest 378 

Upper Mississippi Basin 379-381 

Semi-arid Belt , 381 

Irrigated Western Valleys 383 

Miscellaneous discussions upon 384-402 

sowing 385-389 

grazing 389-392 

fertilizing and renewing 392-395 

transforming brush lands 395-398 

transforming native prairie 398 

shifting lands 399-401 

renewing 401, 402 

Quack, discussion of, 232-248 

described 232-236 

distribution 237 

soils 238 

place in rotation 238 

preparing the soil 239 

sowing 239-240 

pasturing \ . . . 241 

harvesting for hay • 241 

securing seed 242 

renewing 242 

eradicating 245-247 

observations 247 

Range Pastures, discussion of, .436-457 

range states 436 

range country described 436-438 

soils 441 

climate 441, 442 

grazing 443 

carrying capacity 444 

range country in Canada 444 

Grasses failing 445-448 

extent of 446 

causes of 445.443 

Renewing grasses 449, 450 

practicability of 449 

impracticability of , 449 

necessary modifications 450 

West of Cascades •. 383 



xiv INDEX. 

Page 

Difficulties of renewing 450-454 

fencing 451 

sowing seed 452 

substitution 452-454 

Future of 454-457 

protection of 455 

rearing stock 455 

disposing of stock 455 

fattening stock 456 

Red Top, discussion of, 147-165 

described 147-151 

distribution 151-153 

soils 153 

place in the rotation 154 

preparing the soil 155 

sowing 155-159 

pasturing 159, 160 

harvesting for hay 161 

securing seed 162, 163 

renewing 164 

binding soils 165 

Rescue, discussion of, 309-313 

described , 309 

distribution 310 

soils 310 

place in the rotation 310 

preparing the soil 311 

sowing 311 

pasturing 311 

harvesting for hay 312 

securing seed 312 

renewing 312 

Rough Stalked Meadow, discussion of, 301-304 

described 301 

distribution 302 

soils 302 

place in the rotation 303 

preparing the soil 303 

sowing 303 

pasturing 304 

harvesting for hay 304 

securing seed 304 

renewing 304 

Russian Brome, discussion of, 166-189 

described 166-170 

distribution 170-173 

soils 173 

place in the rotation 174-176 



INDEX. xv 

Page 

preparing the Soil 177, 178 

sowing 179-182 

pasturing 183 

harvesting for hay 184 

securing seed 185-187 

renewing 188 

destroying 189 

Sheep's Fescue, discussion of, 313-318 

described 313 

distribution 314 

place in the rotation 314 

preparing the soil : 314 

sowing 317 

pasturing 317 

harvesting for hay 317 

securing seed 317 

renewing 318 

lawns 318 

Tall Oat, discussion of, 206-221 

described 206-210 

distribution 210-212 

soils 212 

place in the rotation 213 

preparing the soil 214 

sowing 215-217 

pasturing 217 

harvesting for hay 218 

securing seed 219 

renewing 220 

Texas Blue, discussion of, 297-301 

described 297, 298 

distribution 298 

soils 299 

preparing the soil 299 

sowing or planting 299 

pasturing 300 

harvesting for hay 301 

securing seed 301 

renewing 301 

Temporary pastures, discussion of, 335-364 

described 335, 336 

Adaptation to various conditions 337-342 

upland pastures 337 

slough lands 338 

sandy lands 339 

dry areas 339 

wet soils 340 

growing in shade ' 341 



xvi INDEX. 

Page 

States and Provinces 342-353 

Northeastern States 342-344 

Southeastern States 344-346 

Canadian Northwest 346 

Upper Mississippi Basin 347 

Semi-arid Belt 348 

Irrigated Western Valleys 349, 350 

West of the Cascades 351 

Pastures other than grasses and clover 352 

Miscellaneous discussions upon 353-364 

sowing 353-355 

grazing . . . : 356, 357 

fertilizing and renewing 358-360 

influence on succeeding crops 361-364 

Timothy, discussion of, 49-78 

described 49-53 

distribution 54 

soils 55, 56 

place in the rotation 57 

preparing the soil 58, 59 

sowing 60-69 

pasturing 70, 71 

harvesting for hay 72-74 

securing seed 75-77 

renewing 77, 78 

Velvet, discussion of, 322-326 

described 322 

distribution 323 

place in the rotation 324 

preparing the soil 324 

sowing 324 

pasturing , 325 

harvesting for hay 325 

securing seed 326 

renewing 326 

Western Rye, discussion of, 265-273 

described 265-267 

distribution 267, 268 

soils 269 

preparing the soil 269 

sowing 270 

pasturing 271 

harvesting for hay 272 

securing seed 272 

renewing 272 

Wire, discussion of 289-297 

described 289-293 

distribution 293 



INDEX. xvii 

Page 

soils 293 

place in the rotation 293 

preparing the soil 294 

sowing 295 

pasturing 295 

harvesting 295 

securing seed 296 

renewing 296 



CHAPTEE I. 

INTRODUCTORY 

The grass crop of the United States is unquestionably 
its most valuable crop and so it will continue through 
all time. True, it is assigned the second place in 
the United States Census Returns of Agricultural Sta- 
tistics for 1899. Corn is given the first rank but these 
reports do not take into account the value of the pasture 
produced by grasses, nor do they include the ameliorat- 
ing and renovating influence which these exert upon the 
soil, and,- consequently, upon the production of other 
crops. The influence referred to relates to the mainte- 
nance of the supply of humus in the soil and the effect 
which the presence of the same exerts upon aeration, 
friability, moisture and available fertility. It is at least 
an open question if the influence, which the grass thus 
exerts on subsequent production in other crops, is not 
as valuable in the aggregate in short rotations as the 
grass crop itself. It is an open question, therefore, as 
to whether grass in its death does not give to the agri- 
culturist a return equal to that given during its life. 

So necessary is the grass crop to the maintenance of 
an equilibrium in cultivated soils, that, in its prolonged 
absence, it is not possible to maintain the same .in cul- 
tivated soils. Commercial fertilizers may be made to 
maintain an equilibrium in fertility, but they do not 



2 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

materially influence the mechanical condition of the soil, 
which exerts an influence on production, not second in 
importance to fertility. To maintain such a condition, 
grasses must be grown in the ordinary processes of till- 
age. They are the balm which soothes the wound given 
to Mother Earth by the ploughshare and other imple- 
ments used in tillage. 

The question of grass production, therefore, is of 
supreme importance to the farmer and because it is, any 
practical information bearing upon the growth of grass- 
es should merit his attention. 

Grasses But Little Known. — Notwithstanding the 
great value of grasses to the farmer, it would probably 
be correct to say, that lie knows less about them and 
the best modes of growing them than about any other 
crop or class of crops as are commonly grown on the 
farm; nor is he altogether to blame for such lack of 
knowledge. The farmers of this continent have not 
had access to any book which deals with the question 
of growing grasses, as applicable to all parts of the 
United States and Canada. They have had access to 
only such avenues of information bearing upon this 
question, as have come from their own personal expe- 
rience, that of their neighbors, or from the desultory 
and inadequate discussion of these questions in the ag- 
ricultural press. 

Tt is not surprising, therefore, that the average tiller 
of the soils knows about only a few grasses ; those that 
are cultivated in his locality. Including clovers, these 
are probably less in number than half a dozen. In 
regard to some of these, though they have grown upon 



INTRODUCTORY. 3 

his land during all the years that he has tilled the 
same, he has never -learned the extent of the service, they 
may he made to render him by stimulating them to high- 
er production. Such, for instance is blue grass (Poo, 
pratosnsis) abused by overgrazing and neglected by be- 
ing allowed to grow unfertilized ; like Topsy in the 
marvellous story, they just grow because they are al- 
lowed to grow. The knowledge of these truths has 
moved the author to write this book and if it brings any 
added light to those who desire the same, one purpose 
for which it has been written will have been well served. 

Students of the agricultural colleges, as well as farm- 
ers, labor at a disadvantage with reference to the ques- 
tion of grasses. They pursue their studies in the ab- 
sence of a text book which tells how to grow them. 
When this is said, it must not be interpreted in the 
slightest degree as reflecting on the excellent books that 
have been written in America on the grass question ; 
these were written for a different purpose. A second 
purpose in writing this book, therefore, is to put, in the 
hands of the agricultural student, a book that will ren- 
der some assistance to him in the study of this involved 
and difficult problem. 

Grasses Worthy of Cultivation. — The dearth of infor- 
mation with reference to growing the more valuable 
grasses, that are being cultivated, or that are susceptible 
to profitable cultivation, is all the more surprising when 
these are considered. In this book the aim has been 
to discuss all. the varieties that are considered really 
worthy of cultivation on lands that are tilled in the 
United States and those not yet cultivated but which 



4 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

give promise of sufficient value when cultivated ; the 
former of these number only 21 and the latter 3. This 
fact seems incredible when it is called to mind that the 
number of the species of grasses in the world runs into 
the thousands and that in some of the individual states 
it runs into the hundreds. It is well, probably, that 
the number of the useful grasses is not greater in the 
meantime, since the list would seem to include enough 
to meet the present needs of the agriculturist. The 
smaller the number of grasses that suffice to meet those 
needs, the easier it is to acquire a knowledge of the 
best methods of growing them. This does not imply, 
however, that the necessities of the agriculturist will 
not, in the future, call for an enlarged list of varieties. 
When that time comes, the wisdom of the agricultural 
scientists will be found equal to the occasion, either 
in evolving new varieties or in improving older ones. 
In the meantime, the fact cannot be gainsaid, that, to 
the practical agriculturist, knowledge pertaining to 
the valuable grasses of sufficient value to justify grow- 
ing them under cultivation, is of far greater account 
than knowledge pertaining to grasses, the low value 
of which, will not warrant such cultivation ; hence, the 
restriction of the present discussion to the former. 

Grasses of Highest Value. — The very limited num- 
ber of grasses, that are of highest economic value un- 
der cultivation, is even more surprising than the num- 
ber which may be profitably cultivated. But three va- 
rieties of the entire number are worthy of a place in 
the front rank. These are timothy (PhJeiim pratense), 
king of the hay grasses on the American conti- 



INTRODUCTORY. 5 

nent; Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis), king 
among the pasture grasses of the northern states and 
Canada, and Bermuda grass (Cynodon daclylon) , king 
among the pasture grasses of the south. But six va- 
rieties would seem worthy of a place in second rank. 
These are orchard grass (Dactylics glomerata), redtop 
(Agrostis vulgaris), Russian brome (Bromus inermis), 
meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) , tall oat grass (Are- 
he natherum arenaceuni), and meadow foxtail (Alope- 
curus pratensis). The claim of meadow foxtail to a 
place among these six may be disputed but leaving it 
out it would seem correct to say that the present needs 
of the agriculturist in the lines of hay and pasture 
could be pretty well met by these eight grasses. The 
other grasses discussed are all possessed of considerable 
value, but in the meantime would not seem worthy of 
being placed higher than in the third rank in the little 
array of grasses that merit the attention of the tillers 
of the soil under American conditions. 

Plan of the Discussion. — The subject opens with the 
discussion in Chapter II of the General Principles 
which govern the Growing of Grasses. This was deemed 
necessary because of the desire to give prominence to 
the question of growth, rather than to that which re- 
lated to structure and classification of the grasses. In 
the judgment of the author, this chapter is the key to 
the discussion and therefore should be given more care- 
ful thought by the reader than any other chapter in the 
book. 

Chapters III to XI inclusive treat of the nine grasses 
that would seem to be possessed of highest economic 



6 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

value among the grasses at present cultivated in the 
United States. They may be considered, therefore, as 
the major grasses. It is the aim in the discussion to 
take these in the order of relative importance ; whether 
they have been so placed, may justly be regarded as open 
to dispute because of the difficulties to be encountered 
in making such a comparison. Though correctly placed 
at the present time, the order of relative importance may 
change, as public attention becomes more and more cen- 
tered upon their relative adaptation and properties in 
the future. It may be questioned as to whether meadow 
foxtail is deserving of the attention given to it and yet 
it has not only been extensively cultivated in north- 
western Europe but is there highly prized. There 
would seem to be no good reasons why it should not 
render similar service in certain areas of this country, 
when more attention comes to be given to the growth 
of permanent pastures, for which it is more especially 
adapted. 

Chapters XII to XIY discuss what may be consid- 
ered the minor grasses worthy of cultivation. Some of 
these are of much economic importance, as, for instance, 
western rye grass (Agropygrum tenerum), but distri- 
bution of all, or nearly all, of them is more sectional 
than is that of the major grasses. Chapter XII dis- 
cusses grasses highly useful in producing food for ani- 
mals but which are so difficult of eradication that it 
would seem unwise ever to sow them on lands that are 
again to be cultivated. It was thought best, however, 
to include them since because of the extreme difficulty 
in eradicating them, it is all the more important that 



INTRODUCTORY. 7 

their habits of growth should be well understood. Chap- 
ter XIII considers Rye Grasses and probably includes 
all of this family, at present, worthy of cultivation 
under American conditions. In Chapter XIV various 
grasses are considered of still less economic importance 
to the whole country. It may even be questioned as to 
whether some of these are worthy of cultivation, as for 
instance, velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) but it will be 
found that each of them has a useful mission in some 
locality and under some conditions. 

Chapter XV discusses Temporary Pastures; Chapter 
XVI, Permanent Pastures ; Chapter XVII, Meadows 
and Making Hay, and Chapter XVIII, Pastures on the 
Range. The discussion of each of these phases of the 
grass question is of necessity brief, too brief probably 
to be sufficiently comprehensive and succinct, but the 
course adopted seemed necessary to avoid unduly swell- 
ing the contents of the volume. 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHICH APPLY TO THE GROWING 

OF GRASSES. 

In discussing the question of grasses and how to grow 
them it is quite impossible to lay down any hard and 
fast rules which will be applicable in all instances and 
without variation, owing to the differences in method 
called for by a difference in the conditions which re- 
late to growth. This difference may arise from varia- 
tions in soils, in climates, in the rotations practiced, 
and also from various other causes, including the va- 
rious uses for which they are grown. To illustrate : — 
while it may be advantageous to bury grass seeds to a 
considerable depth in certain soils, it may be equally 
advantageous to sow them on the surface in other soils. 
While the best results may be obtained from sowing some 
grasses in the spring in certain climates, to secure equal 
results in certain other climates, it would be necessary 
to sow them in the fall. Again, while in some instances 
a stand of certain grasses can only be obtained after 
a crop which puts humus in the soil, under other con- 
ditions an equally good stand may be obtained by sow- 
ing them, almost anywhere in the rotation, and while 
it may be eminently proper to sow certain grasses with 
but scant thickness, to grow seed crops it may be equally 
proper to sow them quite thickly when the object is 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 9 

to provide pasture for sheep. Differences of treatment 
equally striking also arise in the laying clown of perma- 
nent pastures and in the management of the same. 'In 
some localities the best permanent pastures consist of 
a single grass. In others, the pastures are improved 
as the number of the properly selected grasses grown in 
them is increased. 

The fact remains, nevertheless, that there are certain 
principles which will be found so frequently applicable 
when applied to the growth of grasses as to render very 
substantial aid to those concerned in growing them when 
intelligently applied. Because of this the attempt to 
formulate these, or at least the chief of them, and to 
emphasize certain facts of general application, is not 
only justifiable but it is in a sense a necessity. It is 
thus very evident that those who grow grasses intelli- 
gently must always stand upon the watch tower of care- 
ful consideration while thus engaged. 

The more important of the principles which relate 
to the growing of grasses are found in such phases of 
the question as the following: — viz., Adaption; place 
for them in the rotation ; preparing the soil to receive 
them ; seasons for sowing ; methods of sowing ; depth 
to bury the seed ; methods of covering ; amounts of seed 
to sow ; sowing with or without a nurse crop ; sowung 
alone or in combinations ; for hay or for pasture ; the 
grazing of meadows ; the grazing of pastures ; renovating 
meadows ; renovating pastures, and the discussion of the 
question of grasses as soil improvers. These will now 
be discussed in the order named. But before doing so 
it maj r be well to emphasize the fact, that these prin- 



10 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ciples are general rather than specific in their applica- 
tion. They do not apply equally to the growth of all 
the different varieties, nor do they apply equally to the 
growing of the same variety in all sections of the conn- 

try. 

Adaptation in Grasses. — In growing grasses it would 
not l>e easily possible to give too much consideration to 
the question of adaptation. It is not wise to attempt 
to grow grasses for practical uses in localities not rea- 
sonably well adapted to their growth, howsoever valuable 
they be in themselves or as- a food for live stock. At 
the present time, however, the adaptation of several va- 
rieties of even the more valuable of the grasses is not 
fully known in this country. The place for experiment, 
therefore, with a view to throw further light on these 
is a very wide one, nor should conclusions be reached 
too quickly in regard to such adaptation in any state 
or province. Adaptation may be sectional because of 
soil peculiarities and for other reasons. In Southwest- 
ern Minnesota, for instance, the adaptation for blue 
grass is only quite ordinary, whereas in several counties 
in the northeastern part of the same state it is extraordi- 
nary. 

When determining which grasses shall be grown in 
any locality, the aim should be to give the preference to 
those useful varieties which have the highest general 
adaptation for that particular locality. For instance, 
Russian brome grass (Bromus inermis) has high adapta- 
tion for the conditions that generally prevail over the 
northwestern states and also the northwestern provinces 
of Canada, while its general adaption to the southern 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 11 

states is much lower. Consequently, this grass should 
he given a much more prominent place in the states 
and provinces first named. Because of this difference 
in adaptation it may he eminently proper in certain in- 
stances to give the right of way in production to cer- 
tain grasses that are intrinsically much inferior to 
others, could they be grown. In this fact the justifica- 
tion is found for growing under some conditions such 
varieties as couch grass (Agropyrum repens), Johnson 
grass (Sorghum lialapense) and Bermuda grass (Cy no- 
don dactylon), all of which are weed pests of the most 
perplexing type, when allowed to grow under other con- 
ditions. It is not wise to attempt to grow grasses to 
any considerable extent in any locality for which their 
adaptation is lower than what may be considered as nor- 
mal for them. Nor should valuable time and labor be 
thrown away in the attempt to grow a large variety 
of grasses in permanent pastures where the conditions 
only favor the growth of a few varieties. 

Place in the Rotation. — The aim should be to sow 
grasses on clean ground. They should, therefore, as a 
rule, be sown after a cleaning crop, that is to say, after 
such crops as are cultivated while they are growing or 
after a summer-fallow. These crops include corn, sor- 
ghum, the non-saccharine sorghums, potatoes, field roots, 
rape, tobacco and cotton. When thus sown for hay, a 
crop is secured that is usually entirely free, or, in the 
main, free from extraneous products which would lessen 
the value for feeding at home and to a still greater de- 
gree for exposing for sale on the market. When thus 
sown for pasture, the pastures will be clean or meas- 



12 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

urably so. When these are weedy when first laid down, 
the tendency is that they shall become more so as they 
become older, much depending of course upon the kind 
or kinds of the weeds that infest them, and when weeds 
increase in them they cannot be got rid of without great 
labor. The tendency with biennial and perennial weeds 
is to increase, especially the latter. But there are some 
kinds of weeds more commonly of the annual class, and 
which are eaten by live stock, that decrease in pastures. 
Such are wild oats. And some kinds of grasses crowd 
out not a few of the forms of weed life. Such are 
Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) and Russian brome 
(B?*omus inermis). Because of this power, there may 
be instances in which these grasses can be sown on 
weedy ground. 

When grasses thus follow cultivated crops, if sown 
on ground that has been prepared to receive the seed 
by stirring the surface and pulverizing without having 
ploughed it, the further advantage follows : viz., that 
the land will be firm and consequently would lose less 
by surface evaporation than if it had been prepared in 
the ordinary way. This, in dry areas, is a matter of 
much importance. When such lands are not ploughed, 
after the removal of the crop, the further advantage fol- 
lows, that the weed seeds in the lower sections of the 
cultivated soil are brought to the surface. In many in- 
stances these will perish before the grass crop will be 
broken up again. 

Some grasses may follow immediately on the removal 
of forests, as soon as the brush and valueless parts 
of the trees have been burned. Kentucky blue grass 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 13 

(Poa pratensis) is pre-eminently adapted to sncli a use, 
as it will soon subdue the growth of extraneous and com- 
paratively useless products that once spring up as it were 
spontaneously on such lands. Other grasses may be 
sown in certain areas of the unbroken prairie for the 
purpose of crowding out and supplanting the original 
grasses which grew upon them. Such is Russian brome 
(Bromus inermis), but this grass will not crowd out 
and supplant all kinds of prairie grass or even the same 
kind in all places. 

It is proper to follow grasses with such crops as 
luxuriate in soils plentifully supplied with humus. 
Such are corn, potatoes, flax and rape. Where the sod- 
is old, that is where grass has grown for several succes- 
sive years, and is then broken up, it may be advanta- 
geous to grow on it some such crop as peas or vetches 
to aid in subduing the sod, that is, in hastening its de- 
cay. Oats are also capable of growing in good form 
after nearly all kinds of grass, as they are a strong feed- 
ing plant. It is common and usually preferable to de- 
fer the sowing of the other small grains, as wheat and 
barley, until the following year. 

Preparing the Soil. — When preparing the soil for 
any kind of grass the aim should be to secure a moist, 
firm and finely pulverized, seed bed. These requisites 
would seem to be more important relatively than depth 
of tillage, since many kinds of grass when once started, 
have much power to send their roots and rootlets down 
into the soil below the line to which cultivation is ordi- 
narily carried. 

Moisture in the soil is of course necessary to secure 



14 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

germination and unchecked growth after the plants have 
started. It is secured under dry conditions by plough- 
ing the soil or disking it some time previous to the sow- 
ing of the seed and then by harrowing it at intervals 
to form and preserve what may be termed a dust mulch 
to prevent the escape of subterranean moisture through 
capillary action. This power to retain moisture also 
increases with the increase in the proportion of humus, 
that is of decaying or decayed vegetable matter in the 
soil. The abundant presence of this element is not so 
necessary to the successful growth of grasses as to that 
of the small grains, since one object in growing grasses 
in the rotation is to increase the humus in the soil. 
Nevertheless, up to a certain limit, the presence of 
humus is quite helpful to the growth of these also. 

Firmness in the soil is secured by having a consider- 
able interval between the ploughing of the soil or the 
first disking of the same, and the sowing of the seed. 
It is further aided by harrowing, rolling and rainfall. 
It is beneficial, since it tends to exclude an excess of air 
in the soil near the surface, and since it also conduces 
to resistance to the influences that tend to promote the 
escape of moisture by surface evaporation. It also ren- 
ders soils which are liable to heave less susceptible to 
the action of frost. This condition, therefore, is of 
much consequence with such soils when grass seeds are 
sown upon them in the autumn. With light spongy 
soils, a firm condition is even more important in the 
spring, and especially under conditions when moisture 
may be more or less lacking. An excess of firmness 
in certain heavy soils may be induced bv excessive rain- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 15 

fall, hence, in certain areas, to avoid such a possibility 
the ground should not be prepared long before the 
grasses are sown. As a rule, in dry climates that degree 
of firmness in the soil that will best promote the growth 
of grasses will increase up to a certain limit with the 
increase in the interval between the breaking up of the 
soil with the plough or disk, and the sowing of the seed. 
Conversely, when rainfall is abundant, excessive firm- 
ness will be hindered by the shortening of such a period. 
The character of the soil of course has an important 
bearing on the length of the preparatory period, when 
growing such grasses, that will put the soil in the best 
condition to receive them. 

Under ordinary conditions, it would not be easy to 
over-estimate the value of fine pulverization in the 
seed bed on which grasses are to be sown. Its value 
arises from excluding an excess of air from the soil 
near the surface when the plants begin to grow, in 
reducing evaporation, in securing a more abundant 
germination in the seeds sown, and in furnishing 
a feeding ground which the tender rootlets can easily 
penetrate as they push out. This condition is likely to 
be promoted by the influences that tend to produce moist- 
ness and firmness in the soil. The influence of frost 
on fall ploughed lands is specially helpful in securing 
a fine pulverization. Some lands have it naturally in 
a far greater degree than others, hence, in those which 
have, the effort to secure such pulverization is not much 
necessary on the part of the husbandman. On all soils 
stiff in texture, the fineness of the seed-bed will be pro- 
portionate to the labor put upon it when preparing them 



16 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

as by using on them the harrow and the roller. The 
roller will be found specially helpful when laying down 
soils to grass. Before they are sown, it very greatly 
aids in securing a fine pulverization. After they are 
sown it firms the surface soil, pressing it around the 
seeds and thereby hastening germination. But when 
grass seeds are sown in the autumn on heavy soils and 
in rainy climates, it would be easily possible to have the 
pulverization so fine, that impaction of the soil to an 
injurious extent would follow. Grasses like other plants 
grow luxuriantly in proportion as the elements of plant 
food are readily available and abundant in the soil, 
hence, it is quite possible to so reduce the available fer- 
tility in a soil through excessive cropping, that on these 
a stand of grass cannot be secured unless they are first 
enriched. No fertilizer that can be applied under these 
conditions will equal farmyard manure, since it yields 
up the elements of plant food in it but gradually, hence, 
the nitrogen in the same is not leeched out of the soil 
so readily as when applied in the form of commercial 
fertilizers. It also improves the mechanical condition 
of the land. In dry climates, when buried in the soil, 
it should, when fresh, be applied to the crop preceding 
grass, but its presence in the soil in a form so bulky 
should liberate moisture unduly, through the resistance 
which it offers to the influences that promote impaction, 
but, when reduced, it may be applied though in but mod- 
erate quantities, just before the preparation of the land 
for the crop, or while it is being so prepared. Farm- 
yard manure has in it of course all the essential elements 
required to promote growth in grasses. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 17 

If nitrogen is needed in the form of commercial fer- 
tilizers, it is better to apply it on the surface after sow- 
ing the seed, and after the plants have begun to grow 
rather than before. If applied sooner there is the haz- 
ard that it would be washed down into the soil and sub- 
soil before the grass roots could take it up, and this haz- 
ard is proportionate to the amount of the rainfall at such 
a time. It may be applied as nitrate of soda or sulphate 
of ammonia or in various other forms. When phosphor- 
ic acid is wanted, it may be furnished in the form of 
mineral phosphate, ground bone or basic slag, and ap- 
plied while preparing the soil, more especially when 
about to harrow it not long prior to the sowing of the 
seed. Potash may be applied in the sulphate or muriate 
form, as Kainit, or as wood ashes, and like phosphoric 
acid, it may be profitably incorporated in the soil near 
its surface. 

Seasons for Sowing. — Nature teaches some lessons 
with reference to the seasons at which seeds may be 
sown that may be studied with profit. She usually scat- 
ters the seeds of grasses in the autumn. Sometimes 
sprouting follows at once, and when it does the young 
plants become strong before the arrival of winter. But 
the seeds thus sown do not always sprout in the autumn, 
owing to want of moisture. They are, however, in 
that condition which promotes sprouting in the early 
spring, as soon as plant growth begins, because of the 
abundance of the moisture that is pretty certain to be 
present at that season. It follows, therefore, that the 
best time to sow the hardy varieties of grasses is in the 
autumn. But, when thus sown, sufficient time should 
Grasses — 2. 



18 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

be given to the young plants to become firmly rooted 
before the arrival of winter. When they cannot be 
sown thus early, it is usually better to defer sowing until 
just before the ground freezes in the late autumn, in 
localities where the winters are stern. Where they are 
open, there may be hazard in sowing thus late, as, dur- 
ing mild spells, the seeds may sprout and perish later, 
through heaving of the soil, or from other causes. But 
some varieties of grasses are so tender as to render advis- 
able the sowing of these only in the spring. 

Notwithstanding that a good catch of the hardy va- 
riety of grasses is more assured when they are sown in 
the early autumn, it may not always be desirable to 
sow them then, for various reasons. The nurse crops 
with which they are commonly sown may not be needed, 
the weather may be uncompromisingly dry, and the op- 
portunity may not be present for putting the ground 
in that condition which is necessary to render growth 
reasonably assured. When these grasses cannot be sown 
in the autumn, the aim should be to sow them in the 
early spring, as early as the conditions will admit of 
sowing them. The varieties are but few indeed that 
are so tender that they will take injury from the se- 
verity of the spring weather. When sown early, they 
become firmly rooted before the dry weather of summer 
follows, and so can better withstand it. Hence it is 
that grasses are frequently sown with advantage on the 
lingering snows of winter or on the early snows of 
spring. When sown on the undeparted snows of win- 
ter, there is some hazard that a portion of the seed, at 
least, may be carried away by the rapid melting of the 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 19 

snows, as, when warm rains hasten the departure of 
these. At other times they are profitably sown quite 
as early or nearly so, on ground in a honeycombed con- 
dition. But where the conditions are such that nature 
is not likely to provide a sufficient covering for the seeds 
after they have been sown, the sowing should be deferred 
until the ground can be covered with the harrow. 

The late sowing of grasses in the spring may succeed 
in climates which have considerable rainfall in the sum- 
mer, but it will not be successful in those opposite in 
character. The most hazardous seasons in which grasses 
can be sown are the late spring and the early summer. 

Methods of Sowing. — Grasses are usually sown by 
hand, by machines run by hand, or by the seed drill. 
Which of these methods of sowing will be preferable will 
depend upon circumstances. Hand sowing can be done 
under some conditions in which neither the machines 
run by hand nor those run by horses can be used, and 
because of this, the necessity for more or less of hand 
sowing will never cease to exist. 

Sowing by hand is usually a necessity when the seed is 
sown while the snow is yet on the ground, or the ground 
is in such a condition that hand machines may not be 
used on it. It may also be practiced when sowing cannot 
be done by the machines referred to from want of adap- 
tation in these for sowing certain of the larger kinds of 
seeds. The sowing of grasses by hand is the most diffi- 
cult kind of hand sowing. To do it well usually re- 
quires not a little practice, backed up by dexterity in 
acquiring a proper grip of the seed between the thumb 
and two adjacent fingers and an easy and correct swing 



20 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

of the hand. Because of the lightness of the seeds it 
is not easy to secure evenness of cast in the same. The 
difficulty in this respect may arise from the improper 
character of the swing of the hand or from the in- 
fluence of the wind on the seed while falling or from 
both causes. Because of the influence of wind a calm 
time should be preferred for the sowing of grass seeds 
by hand and the lighter the seeds the calmer should be 
the time chosen. But it is possible to sow some of the 
heavier of the grass seeds by hand, while more or less 
wind is blowing, if the sower takes advantage of the 
direction of the wind to assist in carrying the seed. 

More commonly the hand sower uses but one hand 
when sowing grass seeds. When one cast has been sown 
across a field he turns around, and on the return trip 
makes the seed overlap more or less the cast sown on the 
forward trip. Those who can sow with both hands make 
the two casts at one trip, and consequently sow twice 
the area in a given time. When both hands are used 
in sowing, the seed is carried in a sheet, or sack, or 
box, in front of the sower and suspended from the shoul- 
ders. Such a sowing sheet or sack is easily improvised. 

When the ground has been ploughed in ridges of more 
or less width, hand sowing is facilitated, as the sower 
lias the furrows to guide him in walking straight. When 
these are but twelve feet distant, one ridge can be sown 
during each forward or return trip by the person who 
sows with both hands. In other words double hand 
sowing will cover a strip of about twelve feet at one 
time. Where no ridges are made the sower will prob- 
ably find it necessary to set up stakes to guide him as 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 21 

to the direction to take, but following the marks made 
by the grain drill may sometimes be found a sufficient 
guide. 

The hand machine most in favor is usually spoken of 
as the "wheelbarrow seed sower/' from the fact that the 
distributor of the seed is wheeled over the ground on 
a light hand barrow. The distributor usually sows 
about 12 feet in width each time it passes along or across 
the field, but some are made to sow a wider area. This 
form of hand machine may be used when considerable 
wind is blowing, as, when the seed falls from the same, 
it has not far to fall, until it reaches the ground. It 
sows seed evenly, may be used at any time during the 
day, and can be managed by a person not skilled in 
hand sowing, but it cannot be used with advantage 
when the soil is in that condition that would cause it 
to cling to the wheel or to the feet of the sower in any 
considerable quantities. Other kinds of hand sowers 
have been used, but none of these answer the purpose 
better or even as well as the hand sower referred to. 
However, hand machines which are strapped to the 
shoulder and are operated by a crank, find favor with 
not a few, and they are certainly very suitable for scat- 
tering seed over lands encumbered by "brush," that is 
by a growth of young trees and bushes. 

When grass seeds are sown with the grain drill they 
are more commonly sown by means of what is termed a 
"grass seed sower attachment," which is used in con- 
junction with the drill while the latter sows grain, and 
it is placed so as to drop the seeds in front of the grain 
tubes or behind them, as desired. The grass seeds thus 



22 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sown fall upon the surface of the soil. When they fall 
before the grain tubes they are partially covered. When 
they fall behind them they have no covering except such 
as may be given subsequently. Some "broadcast seed- 
ers/' that is, seeders which sow grain by scattering 
it broadcast are also furnished with grass seed attach- 
ments. Grass seeds are sometimes mixed with grain 
and sown with the same, but this method of sowing in 
many instances bnries the seed too deeply. 

The sowing of grass seeds with the grain drill or with 
the grass seed attachment to the same, results in a con- 
siderable saving of labor. But even this method of sow- 
ing them cannot be said to be perfected. When the seed 
is sown along with the grain, in addition to being buried 
too deeply in nearly all soils, it is deposited in the line 
of the grain row, hence the young plants are crowded 
and shaded more than if they could be deposited be- 
tween the grain rows. And when the seed falls on the 
surface, additional covering is necessary. If, therefore, 
a seed drill were invented that would deposit grass seeds 
between the grain rows and while the grain was being 
sown, and that would cover the seed at any desired 
depth, in the judgment of the author a great advance 
would be made in the method of sowing grass seeds. 
More perfect machinery is also wanted for the even 
distribution of some of the lighter seeds, as for -instance 
the seed of meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis). 
Such seeds do not feed into the distributors of the grass 
see ds n ow in use with that regularity that could be de- 
sired. But one make at least of the hand sower which 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 23 

is wheeled over the ground is being so improved that it 
will sow almost all kinds of grass seed. 

Depth to Bury the Seed. — The depth at which grass 
seeds should be buried will be influenced by the size 
of the seed, the character of the soil, the nature of the 
climate, the season of the year at which the seed is sown 
and the relative inherent vigor of the seed. As a rule 
the relation between the size of the seed and the depth 
at which to bury it is both close, and intimate. The 
larger the seed, the more deeply does it require to be 
buried, and the smaller it is the more shallow the cover- 
ing that best meets the conditions of growth. But the 
inherent vigor of the seed has also a qualifying influ- 
ence. The more vigorous the se,ed the better it can 
withstand burial too deep, or too shallow to furnish the 
best conditions for growth. 

No one of these influences, probably, is so great as 
that of soil conditions. As a rule, the lighter the soil, 
in the sense of its being sandy, the more spongy it is in 
the sense of the particles lying lightly upon each other, 
and the less capable it is of resistinq- the influences of 
surface evaporation, the more deeply should the seed 
be buried and vice versa. It would probably be correct 
to say that for all the cultivated grasses some covering 
would be preferable to none at all. In some instances 
the roller following the sowing of the seed, prior to 
the falling of rain, will provide a sufficient covering, 
and there are instances in which rain alone will pro- 
vide a covering. Particularly is this true of seeds that 
are sown on clay soils in the autumn where heavy 
rains in that season and in the winter following tend 



24 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

to pack ill-drained soils. Usually a light harrow with 
many teeth and which may be adjusted at any angle 
desired mav he made to furnish a sufficient covering. 
But there are soils in which it may be advantageous 
sometimes to burv even small grass seeds, as timothy 
and alsike clover, to the depth of two inches or even 
to a greater depth. 

The more moist the climate, the more shallow rela- 
tively may grass seeds be covered. The reasons for this 
will be at once apparent. The more frequent the rains, 
the more copious the dews, the more humid the air, the 
more moderate the temperatures, the nearer to the sur- 
face can the young plants secure the requisite moisture, 
because of the extent to which under the conditions just 
stated the influences which produce it fall upon and 
penetrate the soil, and because of the slow yielding up of 
moisture to the influences which produce surface evap- 
oration. Hence it is that grass seeds and indeed all seeds 
cannot be best planted at the same depth in all localities 
in which the climatic conditions differ, even though the 
other conditions should be the same. 

From what has been said with reference to the in- 
fluence of soil and climate on the depth to which seed 
should be planted, it will be apparent, that when grass 
seeds are sown at those seasons when moisture is abun- 
dant they will need less of a covering than when sown 
at other seasons. Thus it is that the seeds of many 
grasses will grow with reasonable certainty in certain 
areas, when sown in the spring on late snows and on 
ground honeycombed with the frost, without any other 
covering than nature can give them. When sown on 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 25 

late snows the seeds are carried down with the melt- 
ing* of the snows, and are lodged in the small crevices 
in the soil, or are brought so closely in contact with 
the soil that when moist weather follows they germinate 
successfully. Such germination is all the more success- 
ful when the seeds are sown on ground on which a nurse 
crop is growing, since the shade it furnishes at the sea- 
son of germination is helpful to the growth of the young 
grass plants. 

When aTass seeds are sown quite early in the spring, 
they usually require less covering than when sown later. 
The roots find moisture near the surface more readily 
at that season, and the young plants are less liable to 
be injured by the drought of summer. The later they 
are sown, therefore, in the spring, the more deeply rela- 
tively should the covering be. Unless when sown quite 
early in the spring the aim should be to use a harrow 
in covering the seed, and the necessity for careful har- 
rowing increases with the advance of the season. When 
grass seeds are sown in the autumn an intermediate cov- 
ering is usually preferable, as, if covered shallow the 
seed may not find sufficient moisture, and if covered 
deeply the growth may prove insufficient to fortify the 
plants to meet, in the best manner, the adverse condi- 
tions of winter weather. But there may be good rea- 
sons in some instances for covering grass seeds slightly 
or deeply when sown in the fall. 

The inherent vigor of the plants has much to do with 
the depth to which the seed ought to be buried in order 
to secure the most successful germination. Some grass 
seeds have much power to grow without any covering at 



26 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

all save what nature can bring to them. Such, for in- 
stance, is blue grass (Poa pratensis). Because of this 
power it will sometimes take possession of soils with- 
out being sown at all save by the hand of nature. Par- 
ticularly is this true of lands that have produced forest, 
in areas which abounded at one time in the eastern and 
middle states, and also in the provinces of Canada east 
from Manitoba. On these areas this grass usually takes 
complete possession of the soil, to the exclusion of near- 
ly all the other forms of vegetable life, and without any 
aid from man except in removing the shade of trees 
with the axe, and also that of large and coarse forms of 
vegetation, as bushes for instance, by allowing animals 
to graze upon them. Timothy will grow on such lands 
and in some instances without being covered artificially, 
but it will usually grow more successfully when pro- 
vided with a slight covering. Blue grass evidently 
has greater inherent power to grow than timothy, a 
fact /that is evidenced in the ability of blue grass in 
certain soils to crowd out timothy in pastures, to the 
extent of taking complete possession of the soil. The 
possession of inherent power to grow in a marked de- 
cree in unfavorable conditions enables many forms of 
weed life to get a hold on the soil without any covering 
being furnished to the seeds other than nature gives 
them. 

Methods of Covering.-— When grass seeds are sown 
while the snows yet linger on the ground honeycombed 
with the frost, no covering can be given to them other 
than that which nature furnishes, nor, as previously in- 
timated, is it required. Nor is any other covering need- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 27 

ed in many instances when these are sown in the au- 
tumn, with or without a nurse crop, in a climate that 
is humid, and especially when rains are frequent, 
providing the seed is sown as soon as the ground 
has been made ready to receive it and before rain has 
fallen on the same. The first rain that falls would 
seem to provide a sufficient covering for the seed. But 
there are instances when a light harrow should be run 
over the ground. In the renovation of pastures, seeds 
which fall to the ground subsequent to maturity are 
able to grow without any covering. 

When the seed is sown in the spring on a winter crop 
after the ground has become settled a heavy harrow 
will usually cover the seed better than a light one, and 
sometimes it may be even necessary to weight the har- 
row. When it is sown in the spring with or without 
a nurse crop, when the seed falls on the surface, in near- 
ly all instances it is advantageous to cover with the 
roller or the harrow. On heavy soils well supplied 
with rain in the spring, covering by rolling will usually 
suffice. But in loam soils when the rain is not abun- 
dant, and more especially when the summers are hot 
and dry, the seed should be covered with the harrow. 
On firm soils the smoothing harrow will probably do the 
work better than a heavy harrow, as it will bury the 
seeds less deeply. But on soils the opposite a heavy 
barrow is to be preferred because of the greater depth 
to which it buries the seeds. 

When the seed is deposited along with grain sown 
with the drill, or with the broadcast seeder, it may not 
be necessary to harrow the ground further, but if sub- 



28 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sequent harrowing will prove helpful to the growth of 
the grain, which it does in some instances, it will also 
prove helpful to the growth of the grasses sown along 
with it. 

A brush is sometimes used to cover grass seeds and 
with good results as when but a shallow covering is 
needed, but frequently it is not easy to get a small 
bushy tree that will cover a wide strip at one stroke, and 
that will leave the land smooth and even. This method 
of covering grass seed is now seldom or never resorted 
to when a good and suitable harrow can be secured. 

Amounts of Seed to Soiv. — It is not possible to state 
the amount of seed of any kind of grass that would 
prove satisfactory in all areas, since the amount that is 
most suitable for one locality or for a certain kind of 
soil would be too little for another locality or for a 
different kind of soil, and would probably be an excess- 
ive amount under yet other conditions of climate and 
soil. While 9 pounds of timothy may be mentioned 
as a suitable quantity to sow under average conditions, 
under other conditions 6 pounds will suffice, and yet 
again it may be advantageous to sow 12 pounds. 

The following rules may be submitted as a general 
guide in determining the amounts of seed to sow : 1. The 
more stern and rigorous the climatic conditions, the 
larger the amounts of seed that should be sown to allow 
for the loss of some of the weaker plants. 2. The more 
suitable the natural soil conditions for any kind of grass, 
and the more perfect the preparation of the soil to re- 
ceive the seed, the less the quantity that is required, for 
the reason first, that these conditions insure growth 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 29 

from a higher per eentage of the seeds than if the con- 
ditions were the opposite, and second, that the plants 
require more room for development because of the great- 
er size to which they grow. 3. The finer the charac- 
ter of the fodder wanted from grasses fed in the green 
or in the cured form, the larger the amounts of seed 
that are required. 4. When sowing varieties which 
have the power to multiply plants as they grow by means 
of creeping rootstocks moderate amounts of seed are 
to be preferred to large amounts, unless when these 
are sown in short rotations, lest they should soon be- 
come too thick and matted to produce returns that would 
prove entirely satisfactory. 5. When grasses are sown 
alone more seed is required of the variety sown than 
if the same variety were sown in combination with 
other grasses, and the larger the number of grasses in 
the combination the less the relative proportion of each 
that should be sown. 6. When laying down land in per- 
manent pasture larger amounts should be sown of those 
varieties which are known to have the highest adapta- 
tion and value for the conditions under which they are 
sown and vice versa. 7. The quantity of seed required 
usually increases with the size of the seed of any va- 
riety and the opposite of this is also true. 8. In semi- 
arid climates sparse or only moderately thick seeding 
is preferable to thick seeding, as the degree of the 
moisture obtainable is then more perfectly adjusted to 
the needs of the individual plants. Notwithstanding 
that it is not possible to state the amount of seed of 
any given variety of seed that will answer equally well 
for all areas, something will be said about the amounts 



30 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

that will be at least approximately suitable under vary- 
ing conditions when treating of the respective grasses 
which will be later discussed with some degree of mi- 
nuteness. 

Sowing With or Without a Nurse Crop. — It is more 
common to sow grass seeds with than without a nurse 
crop. A nurse crop is one which is supposed to benefit 
the crop sown along with it for a time, by the shade 
which it affords, and in some instances by the shelter 
which it furnishes from the sweeping winds of winter, 
as, when grasses are grown along with some kind of 
winter crop. The practice rests on premises that are 
correct. Notwithstanding, some writers favor sowing 
the seeds alone and there may be instances in which it 
would be commendable to sow them thus. But as a rule 
the practice of sowing grasses with a nurse crop is likely 
to continue in favor with a great majority of those who 
till the soil. 

The benefits arising from sowing grasses with a nurse 
crop include the following: 1. When thus sown shade 
is furnished for the young plants while they are yet 
tender until they become firmly rooted in the soil. 
2. The shade thus furnished is adverse to the crusting 
of the soil, a condition which when present is full of 
hazard to young grass plants, especially when they are 
exposed at such times to hot suns. 3. Usually the nurse 
crop can be grown as well with the grasses present as 
when these are absent, but to this there may be some 
exceptions. For instance, when timothy is sown at 
the same time as winter wheat, it sometimes grows so 
vigorously that the yield of the wheat is somewhat re- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 31 

duced. But when this happens, compensation is ob- 
tained in part at least, by the added value given to the 
straw. The leading objections to sowing thus are: 1. 
That sometimes the grass or grasses are weakened and 
partially destroyed by excessive shade in the nurse crop. 
2. That in other instances the vitality of the grasses is 
so weakened through the consumption of moisture by 
the nurse crop, especially during the ripening period, 
that when the nurse crop is removed when ripe, the 
hot sunshine prevailing at the time will in some areas 
and in some seasons kill a portion of the plants. Some- 
times the destruction is total. 3. When the nurse crop 
lodges some considerable time before it is ready to be 
harvested, the grasses sown with it are pretty certain 
to be smothered by the nurse crop. Such lodging may 
be prevented by pasturing the grain crop for a time in 
the early stages of the growth of the same. 

The benefits from sowing without a nurse crop include 
the following: 1. In some instances a more vigorous 
stand may be secured, since the plants have the full 
benefit of unimpeded sunlight and of all the moisture 
in the soil. Especially is this true when the plants are 
sown on clean soil and start well when they begin to 
grow. 2. When hay of a certain kind is wanted it 
may be obtained one year sooner, in some instances, 
when sown without a nurse crop, as for instance, when 
timothy is sown alone in the autumn, or when certain of 
the rye grasses are sown in the spring. 3. A stand of 
grasses may sometimes be secured when thus sown 
under conditions of weather that would prove fatal to 
grasses sown with a nurse crop, more especially when 



32 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

there is but little moisture in the soil. The objections to 
sowing thus are: 1. In a majority of instances only a 
partial crop of grass is obtained the first season, hence, 
the value that would have accrued from a nurse crop had 
it been grown is reduced in proportion as the grass crop 
is short in its yield. When it is necessary to take one 
season to secure a stand of grass without getting a re- 
turn from it, the question arises as to whether food for 
stock should not be grown in some other way. 2. In 
many instances, weeds grow, which if not checked would 
shade the grass quite as much as the grain, and would 
also mature seeds the plants from which the following 
year would greatly reduce and injure the hay crop. This 
can be prevented of course by mowing them off and al- 
lowing them to lie on the ground to form a mulch when 
not too dense, but this of course entails considerable la- 
bor. 3. It sometimes happens that the young plants, 
when sown thus, are killed out partially or wholly in 
spots by the hot sunshine on an encrusted soil. It is 
evident, therefore, that the practice of sowing grasses 
with a nurse crop is likely to prevail generally in the 
future as in the past. 

The nurse crops that may be used are various. They 
include all or nearly all the small cereal grains ; in 
some instances rape and in others grains grown in mix- 
tures for soiling food. Winter rye is one of the most 
favorable crops with which to sow grasses,, since these 
may in many instances be sown in the fall or early spring- 
as may be necessary. It does not stool as much as some 
grains, hence it injures the young grass less by excessive 
shade, and it is harvested early, thus giving the grass 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 33 

plants the benefit of more sunshine and moisture than 
would be possible when sown with a crop of grain in the 
spring. Spring rye also answers the purpose well, but 
the grass seeds can only be sown upon it in the spring, 
and usually not so early as on winter rye. Winter 
wheat makes nearly as good a nurse crop as winter rye, 
but it stools more and is not harvested quite so early. 
Other winter crops, as for instance winter barley or win- 
ter oats make good nurse crops where these can be grown, 
as in the southern states. But the fact is to be remem- 
bered that when sowing grasses with winter crops adverse 
influences which injure the nurse crop, as cold winds or 
heaving through freezing and thawing alternately will 
also in a measure injure the crops sown with these, 
though probably to a less extent. Barley stands rela- 
tively high as a nurse crop for grasses. It does not shade 
them for so long a period as some other nurse crops, nor 
is the shade so dense, since the growth of barley is not so 
tall as that of other cereals ; more sunlight is admitted 
during the maturing period of the barley. Oats are 
probably less favorable to the growth of young grasses 
than any of the other small grains except peas. They 
stool more than other grains, and are of more leafy 
growth, hence they provide a denser shade, and in matur- 
ing they draw heavily on the moisture of the soil. But 
oats may in manv instances be profitably used as a nurse 
crop by sowing a less quantity of the seed than is usual 
and then cutting the oats for hay as soon as they are 
fully in head. When they are thus harvested, the drain 
of soil moisture so rapid during the maturing period is 
prevented. To preclude such a drain, when it can be 
Grasses — 3 



34 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

done without loss, is usually greatly advantageous to 
grasses sown with a nurse crop, since the weather is 
usually both hot and dry as the harvest season ap- 
proaches. The chief objection to flax as a nurse crop is 
the laic season at which it is sown, but some authorities 
cherish the opinion that there is something in the flax 
itself that is not favorable to the growth of grasses after 
the crop has been removed. Nevertheless, the sowing of 
grasses with flax is frequently attended with a fair meas- 
ure of success. Experience in growing grasses with a 
rape crop is limited, but in some instances it has suc- 
ceeded. The same is true of sowing them with mixed 
crops grown for grain or for soiling. The one objection 
to growing them thus is found in the greater relative 
thickness to which such crops are usually sown. But 
in the case of soiling crops, the removal of these before 
maturity is so far favorable to the growth of the young 
plants. Peas and vetches, when sown to produce 
grain are usually hurtful to grasses sown with them, 
since they nearly always lodge some considerable time 
before they mature. But in some instances grasses and 
also clovers are sown along with grain or forage plants 
sown alone or in combinations to provide grazing for 
horses, cattle, sheep or swine. When such grazing is 
grown it is more commonly on the humus soils of the 
prairies and in areas in which the rainfall is less than 
normal. Grasses and also clovers are sown on these in 
the usual way when the forage crop is sown. As soon as 
the grain has become well started the animals are 
turned in to graze upon it. In some instances a better 
and surer stand may be obtained than from sowing the 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 35 

grass seeds in the ordinary way. For the further dis- 
cussion of this question see page ISO in the book "For- 
age Crops Other than Grasses," written by the author. 

Solving Grasses Alone or in Combinations. — Whether 
any kind of grass should be sown alone or along with 
other grasses depends upon the object, or objects, for 
which it is grown ; and also on the degree of its adapta- 
tion to the locality. 

When any variety is grown for seed it is usually sown 
alone, but in some few instances certain varieties may be 
sown in combination even when seed is sought. Tim- 
othy is frequently sown with medium red clover. The 
year after sowing the seed the crop is cut once, and in 
some instances twice, for hay. During several subse- 
quent and successive seasons it may be practicable to 
harvest the timothy for seed. But to growing grasses 
together for seed there is the strong objection, first, that 
they produce seed less perfectly when grown thus, be- 
cause of the thick growth produced by mixtures ; second, 
that in many instances they do not ripen their seeds at 
the same time ; and third, that it would prove a difficult, 
if not, indeed, an impossible, task to separate many 
kinds of seeds when thus harvested together, they are 
so' nearly alike in size. 

When grown for hay it is common to sow grasses in 
mixtures and these mixtures frequently contain also 
the seeds of certain of the clovers. These mixtures usual- 
ly yield more and produce hay of finer growth than 
when sown alone. But when sowing two or more va- 
rieties together it is usually better to select those which 
mature about the same time, that they may be har- 



36 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

vested when each variety has reached that stage oi 
growth when it is best fitted for making good hay. 
Some of the less important of these combinations will 
be referred to later, when discussing certain of the more 
important of the grasses. 

When pastures are wanted the grasses sown to produce 
them are generally sown in combination. To make per- 
manent pastures they are nearly always sown thus. 
Sometimes it may be advisable to sow but one variety to 
produce pasture either temporary or permanent in char- 
acter because of the peculiar adaptation of the same to 
the climatic and also to the soil conditions. Kentucky 
blue grass (Poa pratensis), timothy (Phleum pratense), 
Russian brome grass (Bromus inermis) and Johnson 
grass (Sorghum halapense) are frequently sown thus. 
But in a great majority of instances it is advisable to 
sow grasses in combinations to make permanent pas- 
tures and the larger the number of the grasses that can 
be successfully grown in these the more valuable are 
they. When sown thus they not only produce more pas- 
ture than one variety would, but they produce it more 
continuously through the season and for a longer period. 
This arises first, from the denser character of the 
growth; second, from the different parts of the season 
when each variety is at its best, and third, from the 
greater durability of some varieties as compared with 
others. When determining the grasses which should 
be sown in combination, the aim should be to sow only 
such varieties as will produce relatively well under the 
conditions present and that are not short lived. While 
it may be proper in some instances to sow many varie- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 37 

ties, in other instances and indeed generally but a lim- 
ited number of varieties should be chosen, and jet again 
but one variety. It would seem to be correct to say that 
when determining which grasses should be sown in 
combination pastures, adaptation should be the first con- 
sideration, intrinsic value for the end sought the sec- 
ond, and permanence in growth the third. Notwith- 
standing there may be instances in which it is wise to 
sow freely in the mixture some short lived variety to 
provide abundant grazing while the slower growing- 
varieties are becoming established. 

The Grazing of Meadows. — The way in which mead- 
ows are grazed has a far more important influence on 
their productiveness than is generally supposed. The 
practice of grazing them closely in the autumn is quite 
common and this is frequently done the autumn imme- 
diately following the sowing of the seeds. 

When thus grazed the vitality of the plants is less- 
ened. The protection which the autumn growth fur- 
nishes being thus removed, the roots of the plants are 
more exposed to the severity of the winter weather than 
they would otherwise be, and, in consequence, they 
grow less vigorously than they otherwise would the fol- 
lowing season. Severe grazing of newly sown meadows 
in the autumn sometimes leads to their destruction be- 
fore one crop of hay has been grown. Of course, all 
grass plants are not equally injured by such grazing, 
but there is probably no variety the yield of which will 
not be lessened the following season when thus closel.v 
grazed unless the season and other conditions are un- 
usually favorable. 



38 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

When meadows are not thus closely grazed in the 
autumn the grass starts much more quickly in the spring 
than it would under conditions the opposite. The young 
shoots are protected from the cold winds and the early 
frosts which retard growth at that season. They are 
thus protected by the aftermath of the previous season, 
which acts also as a mulch and thus retards surface evap- 
oration in a marked degree. The increase in the yields 
from the protection furnished by aftermath is in some 
instances as much as 50 per cent. 

But it does not follow that meadows should never be 
grazed after harvest. In some seasons the growth of the 
aftermath will be so vigorous that during the following 
winter the grass in at least portions of the meadow 
would be smothered, and in other portions growth would 
be retarded by the excessive amount of the mulch pro- 
duced, and the hazard is greater with free-growing 
plants, as clover, and in countries subject to heavy falls 
of snow. Moderate pasturing, therefore, is frequently 
helpful, but the aim should be to graze meadows early 
rather than late in the autumn. Nor should they be 
grazed when the ground is so wet that it will poach 
through the sinking of the feet of the animals which 
graze upon it. Grazing meadows thus on clay soils 
especially would be highly injurious to them. It should 
also be remembered that the more closely animals graze 
the more will the meadows be injured by such grazing. 
Because of this, grazing with cattle is less injurious than 
grazing with sheep. The grazing of meadows, there- 
fore, after harvest is usually injurious in proportion as it 
is late and close, as the plants grazed are lacking in in- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 39 

herent vigor and in ability to grow quickly, as the soils 
are wet and heavy of texture, and as the winter weather 
is severe and the summer weather dry. 

The Grazing of Pastures. — Much of what has been 
said in the preceding section on the grazing of meadows 
will also apply to the grazing of pastures. But the pro- 
ductiveness of the latter is likely to be injured more by 
excessive grazing than that of the former. Grazing is 
excessive when it lessens the possible production of the 
pasture, but it may not be easy to determine in many 
instances when that point is reached beyond which fur- 
ther grazing would be excessive, since what would be 
in excess in a season characterized by "drought would 
not be so in one characterized by an abundant rain- 
fall. 

Close grazing injures pastures by weakening their 
capacity to grow, by increasing their exposure to injury 
through surface evaporation, by removing what would 
prove a protection to them in winter, and in some in- 
stances by preventing the plants from re-seeding. 

That plants breathe through the medium of the leaves 
is well known. It follows, therefore, that the strength 
of the plant, when amply supplied Avith food and mois- 
ture will be proportionate to the extent of the surface 
through which it breathes. This explains in part at 
least why a larger amount of food will be furnished by 
grass plants from a given area under normal condi- 
tions when mowed than when grazed. But this result 
will probably be modified when moisture is insufficient. 
Consequently, the closer the grazing the less ordinarily 
will be the production of the pastures. 



40 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

When grasses are kept constantly bare, surface evap- 
oration is more rapid than it would otherwise be, and be- 
cause of this the grasses will surfer sooner from a de- 
ficiency of moisture. The earlier in the season, there- 
fore, that close grazing begins, and the more persistently 
that it is followed, for one season and for successive 
seasons the more is productive power in the pastures 
weakened. In climates in which the supply of moisture 
is ample the mistake of too close grazing is not nearly so 
serious as in those opposite in character, but in any 
climate it lessens productiveness. 

When the grasses enter the winter eaten down to the 
ground, or nearly so, they not only suffer more from 
exposure than they would were they protected by a self 
provided covering, but as in the case of meadows, they 
spring up more quickly and more vigorously in the 
spring. The difference in both respects is marked. As 
a result, earlier grazing is possible, and the animals thus 
grazed are not so liable to injury from a too lax con- 
dition of the bowels, as if turned out onto grazing in the 
spring consisting only of fresh grass ; the old grass which 
is eaten along with the new militates against such a con- 
dition. 

The hindrance to the re-seeding of grass plants in pas- 
tures of but short duration is not serious, since they 
are sown to be broken up again. 'Nor is it so greatly 
important in permanent pastures laid down by man, 
since the hand that sowed the seed which made these can 
add more seed from time to time as occasion may require. 
But with permanent pastures made by nature, as on 
ranges, this question becomes one of great significance. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 41 

Range pastures cannot be kept from deteriorating where 
re-seeding through the processes of nature is hindered by 
close grazing. 

Pastures are grazed under improper conditions if 
grazed when too wet or when too much frozen. When 
the soil is too wet the ground poaches, and in some in- 
stances becomes impacted. Both conditions are adverse 
to growth. The injury from such pasturing on very stiff 
soils may extend over years. The reasons for the in- 
jury to pastures from close grazing when the ground is 
hard frozen are not so apparent, but the fact of such 
injury cannot be doubted, nor should the fact be over- 
looked that all the influences unfavorable to production 
in pastures just so far encourage the growth of weeds in 
these. 

Renovating Meadows. — Since meadows are in a great 
majority of instances of but limited duration, the at- 
tempt is seldom made to renovate them. More com- 
monly when the production on these falls below tne line 
of profits, they are overturned with the plough. But in 
some instances the stand of grass secured at the first is 
only partial, and for various reasons it may be desirable 
to improve it. In other instances the stand may be good 
but the production is low from want of plant food in 
the soil. In these it may be desirable to stimulate 
growth, and in yet other instances, owing to the diffi- 
culty of getting a stand, the aim is to prolong the period 
of productiveness through what is termed self -seeding ; 
that is, renewal from seed which falls from the plants ii? 
the meadow. 

When the stand of grasses is but partial, as when, for 



42 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

instance, it grows in the lower lands and fails on the 
higher ground through drought or poverty of soil, a full 
stand may sometimes he obtained by simply adding more 
seed, and providing the same with a covering. If the 
stand on the spots that need renewal is partial; that is 
to say, if there are plants there but growing too thinly, 
the seed should be sown on the surface and covered with 
the harrow, but the ground should not be harrowed to 
the extent of destroying many of the plants that are 
already established. If the areas that require re-seed- 
ing are devoid or nearly so of plants it may be helpful, 
in some instances, to disk the ground before adding 
more seed. The seed thus added should be sown in the 
fall as soon as fall rains come. If a top dressing 
of fine farmyard manure is added before or after har- 
roAving in the seed, but not in such quantities as to hin- 
der growth by smothering, the young grasses will grow 
more vigorously and will go through the winter in much 
better form. In the absence of farmyard manure certain 
commercial fertilizers may be used with profit. Tim- 
othy meadows especially may be thus renewed with 
much advantage. 

When the growth of the plants is to be stimulated fer- 
tilizers must be applied. For this purpose no better 
fertilizer can be used than farmyard manure, could it 
be obtained in sufficient quantities, as it acts as a 
mulch in addition to the fertility which it supplies. It 
may be used in the fresh form, especially when evenly 
and not too thickly distributed, as with the aid of the 
manure spreader or in the reduced form. When applied 
it ought to be in the autumn rather than the spring on 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 43 

lands that are not hilly. If applied in the spring in the 
fresh form it is not easy to avoid raking up more or less 
of the manure in the hay at harvest time. Artificial 
fertilizers may of course be used in lieu of farmyard 
manure. The kinds that ought to be used and the quan- 
tities to use will be determined largely by the needs of 
the soil and of the plants. Fertilizers rich in nitrogen 
are especially helpful in growing grasses. Potash is 
equally helpful in growing clovers, but" in a majority of 
instances complete fertilizers are the most satisfactory. 
It is usual to apply these fertilizers just after growth 
has begun or after each cutting. 

The renewal of meadows through self-seeding is more 
applicable to those in which medium red clover (Trifo- 
Hum pratense) is one of the factors, than to those com- 
posed entirely of grasses, since the former produces seed 
in the autumn after one crop of hay has been harvested. 
On certain light soils and in certain areas more or less 
deficient in rainfall, meadows have thus been main- 
tained for many years. But to maintain them thus it 
was found necessary to graze them but little, or not at 
all, according as moisture was present or absent. Mead- 
ows composed entirely of grasses could not be renewed 
thus, since after being mown they do not usually produce 
seed again the same season. But it would be possible 
to renew them thus by grazing for one season, but not so 
closely as to preclude a part of the plants from maturing 
and shedding seeds. 

Renovating Pastures. — Pastures may be renovated 
and improved by adding seed directly or through the 
medium of self-seeding, by dressing them with fertilizers 



44 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and in some instances by re-ploughing them. The va- 
rious phases of this wide question, however, will only be 
touched upon here. The precise methods of securing 
such renovation are more fully discussed in Chapters 
XV and XVI. 

In certain areas when moisture is more or less de- 
ficient as in the semi-arid belt, and in lands immediately 
adjacent thereto, the grasses become thinner and in spots 
fail altogether when they are grazed closely for a term 
of years. The same is also true of pastures in certain 
soils of the south much deficient in plant food. As these 
fail the soil remains uncovered, or is more or less pos- 
sessed by noxious weeds. In tillable areas the remedy 
is adding more seed in the late fall on the disked or un- 
broken surface, or in the early spring, with or without 
disking or harrowing according to circumstances. When 
this is done it has not usually been found necessary to 
cease pasturing unless for a short time after sowing 
the seed. Where tillage cannot be given as on the range 
the remedy lies in so restricting the grazing that the 
grasses may mature seeds to a greater or less extent and 
so re-seed the land. On the open range, that is, on that 
part of the range country known as public domain, such 
restriction has not heretofore been found practicable. 
But on those portions of the range under private own- 
ership this can be done when the range is fenced, either 
by grazing so moderately that more or less seed from 
the grass plants will mature every year or by pasturing 
only in alternate years. 

Top dressing with fertilizers may be made to greatly 
increase the productiveness of pastures in areas sub- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 45 

ject "to cultivation. On the range such fertilization 
would not be practicable because of the cost. Of these 
fertilizers none are so effective probably as farmyard 
manure, since as when applied to meadows it acts as a 
fertilizer and also as a mulch, and the more quickly 
it can be applied after it is made, the greater is the 
benefit that follows from applying it. While it may 
be applied at nearly any season, the greatest benefit, 
probably, will accrue from applying it in the late au- 
tumn or early winter because of the protection which it 
affords and because of the stimulus given to the growth 
of grasses covered by it as soon as growth begins in the 
spring. So great is the stimulus given to such dressings 
by the growth of grasses that they crowd out many kinds 
of weed life that may be present. The deeply rooted 
objections in the popular mind to such applications, 
because of the weed seeds which they bring to the pas- 
tures, would seem to be cherished to an extent far 
beyond the clanger incurred. Such dressings are pe- 
culiarly adapted to pastures which form a part of the 
regular rotation, since the stimulus thus given to the 
growth of the grass plants adds to the humus of the 
soil when the pastures are overturned with the plough. 

Artificial fertilizers are more commonly used in top 
dressing pastures in the complete form, but frequently 
the fertilizer is applied only in the form of nitrogen. 
Sometimes phosphates only are used and sometimes 
wood ashes. The needs of the soil should chiefly de- 
termine the kinds of fertilizer to be used and the quan- 
tity of the same. 

Only with certain kinds of grasses can pastures be 



46 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

renovated by breaking them up occasionally with* the 
plough and then in due time following with the harrow. 
Included in the number are quack grass (Agropyrum re- 
pens), Russian brome (Bromus inermis), Johnson grass 
(Sorghum halapense) and Bermuda grass (Cynodon 
dactylon). It will be observed that these all have the 
power to multiply by pushing root-stalks through the 
soil, but all grasses which have such power may not be 
renewed thus. Because of this quality these grasses 
are much liable to become sod bound ; that is to say, so 
thick that free growth is hindered. By breaking them 
up occasionally, as referred to above, they start off with 
renewed vigor. The frequency with which they should 
be thus ploughed, the season for doing the work and the 
method of doing it will be influenced by such conditions 
as climate and soil. Since experience in renovating 
pastures thus is limited ; the precise methods to be fol- 
lowed are as yet but imperfectly understood. 

Grasses as Soil Improvers. — Grasses, unlike clovers 
and other legumes do not bring fertility to land. 
On the other hand, they remove it in the hay, which 
they furnish as in the case of non-leguminous cereals, 
unless fed upon the farm which produced them and 
the manure thus made is returned to the land. Even 
when pastured there is a loss of fertility unless the 
animals grazed upon the pasture remain upon them by 
night as well as by day. But since inert fertility is 
being gradually liberated in all soils, and since grasses 
not only gather more or less of this in the processes 
of growth, but actually hasten such liberation while 
they are growing, the soil upon which they grow grad- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 47 

ually becomes richer in available fertility, except in 
so far as the product of such growth is removed from 
the land. This explains why the producing power of 
grass-producing lands grazed by sheep is increased. It 
also explains at least in part why poor soils become more 
productive when they have become covered with a 
growth of grass. 

Grasses, however, improve the mechanical condition 
of the soil. They put humus into it not only in the 
decay of their rootlets, but also in the decay of the sod 
which they have formed when it is buried with the 
plough. The vegetable matter thus furnished yields up 
plant food in a readily available form, binds light soils 
so that they lift less with the winds, and renders stiff 
soils more friable and consequently easier of access to 
the roots of plants. And they greatly increase the power 
of all soils to retain moisture in the cultivable area for 
the benefit of succeeding crops. 

The extent of the benefit thus conferred will increase 
with the increase of the supply of vegetable mat- 
tor thus furnished and with the slowness of the decay in 
the same. When grasses have been grown upon a 
piece of land for a time the maximum production of hu- 
mus is practically reached. If, therefore, when this 
limit has been reached, the pasture is broken up, and the 
same land is again laid down to pasture it is very evi- 
dent that much more humus will be put into the soil thus 
rotating grasses than by growing them for long periods. 
In tillable areas, therefore, it is greatly important that 
grasses shall be rotated with other crops. In climates 
lacking in humidity and warmth and also in moisture, 



48 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the decay of vegetable matter is relatively slow, hence, 
the benefit from the decay of snch matter is much more 
lasting in these climates than in those opposite in 
character. Consequently it is greatly important that 
grass crops shall form a factor in rotation, even though 
they should not bring fertility directly to the soil. 



CHAPTEK III. 

TIMOTHY. 

Timothy (Phleum pratense), has also been known 
by the name Herd's grass and in some instances by that 
of Meadow Cat's Tail. It is said to have been found 
growing wild in a swamp in Piscataqua, N. H., prior to 
the middle of the eighteenth century by one Timothy 
Herd ; hence the origin of the name Timothy and possi- 
bly also Herd's grass, although some authorities lean to 
the view that the latter name was given because of its use 
in providing grazing for the herd. It was known chiefly 
by the name Herd's grass for several decades in xsTew 
England ; others claim that it was named Timothy from 
Timothy Hanson of Maryland, who, it is said, and with 
much probability, introduced it from England about 
the year 1720. Other authorities state that in that 
year Timothy Hanson took the seed from New York to 
the Carolinas and thence to England, but there can be 
no doubt that it is also indigenous to England. Yet 
again it has been claimed that the seed was taken from 
Virginia to England by one Peter Wynch in 1760 or 
1701. It is quite possible, therefore, and highly prob- 
able, that the seed was derived from the two sources; 
that is, from England and America. 

The plants tiller considerably, and when not croAvded 
will each produce several stems. The stems grow up- 
Grasses — 4. 



50 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

rightly and usually attain the height, of about two feet, 
but in some instances they grow to a height of four to 
five feet. They are surmounted by a handsome circular 
spike or head, which is also elongated, and is usually 
about three to four inches long, but sometimes they are 
produced as long as 12 inches. When in full bloom a 
field of timothy is an attractive sight, especially in the 
early morning while the dew lingers. The whole field, 
at such times, presents the appearance of a sea of fila- 
ments standing out from the heads and sustaining deli- 
cate and, in a sense, almost colorless flowers. The leaf 
growth cannot be said to be large in proportion to the 
stems, but it is fine and makes good grazing in the early 
season. When the plants grow closely, the growth of 
stem is fine, which of course increases the palatability of 
the hay. The root growth is fibrous and bulbous. The 
fibrous character is greater relatively in good and moist 
soils and the bulbous in poor soils. In any event the 
bulbs are small and the plants feed chiefly not very far 
from the surface. 

Timothy is perennial and under the most favorable 
conditions will grow at least a score of good crops in suc- 
cession, but under conditions that are not really favora- 
ble, it is short lived. Ordinarily it will grow several 
good crops in succession before it is necessary to break 
up the sod. It grows rather slowly compared with some 
of the other food grasses, and ordinarily it makes but 
little growth the same season subsequently to its being 
mown for hay. 

There are several Varieties of timothy, but these are 
known only to botanists. At least the seed has not come 




Fig. 2. 
TIMOTHY (Phleum pratense.) 

Oregon Experiment Station. 



TIMOTHY. 53 

into the market under names that would indicate specific 
varieties. And yet it is claimed by botanists that some 
of the varieties are so distinct and so specifically su- 
perior to the variety commonly sown as to deserve suffi- 
cient attention to grow them with a view of placing them 
on the market on the ground of superior merit. 

Timothy is grown rather for hay than for pasture, 
and yet in certain areas of the prairie it is much relied 
upon for pasture at the present time. Close grazing may 
weaken the plants under certain conditions, but ordina- 
rily it does not readily succumb because of such treat- 
ment. Of all the grasses now grown for hay on the 
North American continent, timothy is unquestionably 
the most generally useful and it is by far the most 
extensively grown. This arises in part from the wide 
range in its adaptation, but more from its many good 
qualities. These include the ease with which it may 
be grown, cured and transported, the high palatability 
and nutrition which it possesses, and the attractive ap- 
pearance and readily marketable character of the hay. 
The hay, though fed to horses, cattle and sheep, has been 
found specially adapted to the needs of horses, and most 
of all adapted to the needs of horses when at work. 
This arises in part from the suitability of the food con- 
stituents which it contains, and in part from its meet- 
ness to the digestion of horses at work. It may be 
more suitably fed to cattle and sheep when grown along 
with some variety of clover, since, when thus fed, the 
fodder is in better balance. When fed to sheep it 
should be of fine growth and cut early. 

Distribution. — As has already been intimated, tim- 



54 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

othy is thought to be indigenous to both Europe and 
America. It is now also grown over considerable areas 
in Western Asia and Northern Africa, and without ques- 
tion a wide area of distribution awaits it south of the 
equator. 

Timothy calls for a climate, temperate rather than 
torrid or frigid, and moist rather than dry. But few 
climates, if any, are too humid for the successful growth 
of timothy, the other conditions being right. But the 
climate is too dry even in some parts of the United 
States and Canada. Especially is this true of the 
mountain valleys eastward from the range of moun- 
tains nearest to the Pacific and of the range country for 
several hundred miles east from the Rockies. But in 
these areas good crops can be grown under irrigation 
and also without irrigation on many of the bench lands 
which appertain to the mountains. That it is able to en- 
dure much cold is evident from the fact that the winters 
of Manitoba and Assiniboia do not destroy it. It can- 
not so well endure hot summer temperatures, and this, in 
part, accounts for the comparatively little success that 
attends its growth in several of the southern states. 

In the United States, timothy may be grown under 
certain conditions in some portion or portions of every 
state in the Union. If, however, a line were run across 
the continent from Washington to San Francisco, north 
of that line would lie those states in which timothy may 
be said to be a staple crop. In these states the highest 
adaptability to its growth is found in those of them 
adjacent to the Canadian boundary. Nowhere on the 
continent probably does timothy grow so well as on the 



TIMOTHY. 55 

tide lands of the Atlantic and the Pacific northward 
from the fortieth parallel. It also grows with great lux- 
uriance in the river bottoms of Washington and British 
Columbia in Canada and adjacent to the sea. In the 
southern states, much of the soil is too low in humus 
for the successful growth of timothy until the lack men- 
tioned is supplied, notwithstanding the humid character 
of the climate. But in certain areas, especially on the 
plateaus of the mountains, good crops of timothy are 
grown. The states which are lowest in adaptation for 
the growth of timothy are those which lie to the south- 
west. 

Timothy grows more or less vigorously on suitable 
soils in all the provinces of Canada, and with much 
vigor in Ontario and Quebec. The tide lands of the mar- 
itime provinces are capable of producing good crops of 
timothy indefinitely. It does not grow well on the 
western prairies as in other areas of the Dominion of 
Canada. Especially is this true where the rainfall is 
light, as for instance toward the Bocky Mountains when 
approached from the east. 

Soils. — Timothy will grow, but, of course, not equally 
well, on a wide range of soils. There is probably no 
soil in the cultivable area of America in which it will 
absolutely fail to grow to some extent, when the cli- 
matic conditions are suitable. Nevertheless, to grow it 
at its best, the soil should be rich and moist, and at 
least fairly well supplied with humus. Consequently, 
timothy usually grows luxuriantly on reclaimed swamp 
lands and on the alluvial soils of river bottoms. To these 
mav be added certain of the volcanic ash soils of the 



56 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

west. It e;ener allv grows in good form on the humus 
soils of the prairie, on upland loams and even on stiff 
clays. But to grow the crop at its best in reclaimed 
swamps it is necessary that the soil shall be muck rather 
than peat. In the latter, if unreduced, it will not make 
much growth, even though sufficient moisture should be 
present. In river bottoms it is necessary that the soils, 
if sandy, shall contain at least a fair proportion of 
loam. In the volcanic ash soils of the western moun- 
tain states, it would seem to be specially necessary that 
ample moisture shall be present. In the humus soils of 
the prairie sufficient clay is requisite to keep them from 
lifting with the wind. Upland loams require at least a 
fair amount of fertility, and stiff clays enough of humus 
to prevent them from impacting and baking in a degree 
seriously harmful to growth. The valley lands of the 
east and the west, all across tjie northern half of the 
continent, have specially high adaptation for timothy, 
but nowhere probably higher than on river bottoms and 
reclaimed lands beside the Pacific and the Atlantic. On 
the foothills of the Alleghanies and of the Rockies it 
grows well, a fact in a considerable degree accounted for 
by the seepage from the mountains, which keeps the 
ground moist. The return from certain of the humus 
soils of the prairie is frequently disappointing, but this 
arises probably more from a lack of moisture than a lack 
of plant food in the soil. It would probably be correct to 
say that the black soils of the prairie, so light that the 
winds will sometimes carry them, are not really good 
timothy soils. 

Dry, sandy soils and soils low in fertility are ill 



TIMOTHY. 57 

adapted to the growth of timothy. This is true of the 
last named class of soils, regardless of their composition 
or mechanical condition. Good crops of timothy cannot 
be grown on a hungry soil, any more than good crops 
of wheat. Sandy soils low in humus are usually of this 
character, and are, moreover, leechy ; hence, on these the 
crop is usually characterized by lack of vigor in its 
growth. The naturally hungry character of many of the 
upland soils of the south is largely responsible for the 
lack of adaptation in these to the growth of timothy. 

Place in the Rotation. — Timothy should be sown on 
clean soil. It should, therefore, follow such crops as 
have been given clean cultivation during the period of 
growtlv These will include corn, sorghum, the non- 
saccharine sorghums, all kinds of field roots, potatoes, 
in some instances rape ; also cow peas and soy beans. It 
may also be sown with much advantage on lands that 
have been properly summer fallowed. It is, of course, 
frequently sown on land that is not clean, and it may 
grow with some vigor under such conditions, but the hay 
produced will not be of nrime quality because of the 
weeds that are mixed with it. 

Timothy may be followed by almost any kind of a 
crop, since, when sown alone it does not form a stiff sod ; 
hence, the crops which immediately follow timothy are 
usually able to gather sufficient food from the soil. But 
the aim should be to follow timothy with some small 
cereal grain crop which has much power to gather food 
in the soil, since, under some conditions, overturned 
sod does not decay quickly enough to enable certain 
crops to gather food therefrom with sufficient quickness 



58 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

to produce results such as may be desired. The oat crop 
is a favorite one to sow immediately after timothy. The 
same is true of flax, in areas where that crop is success- 
fully grown. When the sod can be ploughed immedi- 
ately or soon after the timothy has been harvested for 
hay, or even earlier when it is being used as pasture, 
winter wheat or some other winter cereal may be sown 
upon it with much advantage. Peas or vetches will grow 
luxuriantly after this crop, and they aid in reducing the 
sod where this may be necessary to bring the land in 
proper condition for sustaining successfully some cereal 
that has less power to gather its food. Overturned tim- 
othy sod is also advantageous to the growth of such 
crops as corn, potatoes, the sorghums and rape. All of 
these feed ravenously on the decaying vegetable matter 
in the sod. But, since these are all grown as cleaning 
crops, the growing of such cereals as oats, barley and 
Canada field peas, the peas to be followed by wheat, are 
more commonly made to follow crops of timothy. 

Preparing the Soil. — In ordinary practice, when tim- 
othy is sown with a nurse crop, that degree of pulveriza- 
tion which prepares the soil sufficiently for sowing the 
nurse crop is considered sufficient for the timothy also. 
But this does not always hold true. Clay soils are fre- 
quently covered with small clods on the surface, the 
pulverization under these being so fine that the small 
grains sown on them will start with sufficient vigor, 
while the timothy seed, being planted nearer the surface, 
will not germinate well unless the weather should prove 
more than ordinarily moist. In nearly all instances, 
therefore, it will prove advantageous to work the ground 



TIMOTHY. 59 

sufficiently to secure a fine condition of tilth on the sur- 
face. The more nearly the condition of the pulveriza- 
tion secured resembles that of a garden prepared for 
the seed the better. To secure this may involve the per- 
sistent use of the harrow and roller, but labor thus ex- 
pended will ordinarily be well repaid in the better stand 
of timothy that will follow. But to this rule there may 
be some exceptions. For instance, when timothy is 
sown in the autumn on stiff clays, and in areas subject 
to beating autumn or winter rains, when the pulveriza- 
tion is fine beyond a certain degree, the soil "runs to- 
gether; 7 ' that is, the fine particles in it adhere so closely 
that in some instances it becomes encrusted — a con- 
dition adverse to every form of plant growth. When 
timothy is sown alone, as it sometimes is in the early 
autumn, the ground may in many instances be prepared 
by simply using the disk, the harrow and the roller. 
Such preparation will usually suffice when the surface 
of the soil is at least reasonably free from weeds. Such 
a condition is frequently met with on soils from which a 
heavy «rop of peas or vetches have been harvested or 
from which a cultivated crop as potatoes, have been re- 
moved. But if the soil sustains weed growth in any 
marked degree then it ought to be ploughed if possible a 
considerable time before the seed is sown, and pulverized 
by suitable cultivation. On soils that are liable to lift 
with the wind, it would probably be better to sow the 
seed amid the grain stubbles in the early autumn and 
cover with the harrow. The stubbles will so far hinder 
the winds from lifting the soil, and will also furnish pro- 
tection to the young plants in the winter season. 



60 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

The more that soils are enriched for timothy, the bet- 
ter will he the growth that will follow. It is more com- 
mon, however, to stimulate growth hy dressing the plants 
with a fertilizer than to apply fertilizers to the soil 
previous to sowing the seed. Farmyard manure is an 
excellent fertilizer, but when applied on soils intended 
for timothy, if in the fresh form, the results are likely 
to prove more satisfactory on the whole if it is used when 
preparing the crop that precedes timothy, since the un- 
used increment still left in the soil is then easily accessi- 
ble to the young timothy plants. But reduced farmyard 
manures may be applied with advantage when preparing 
the soil for the nurse crop with which the timothy is to 
be sown ; coarse manures may also be thns applied, where 
the conditions favor rapid decomposition in the soil 
and especially when the period of soil preparation covers 
a considerable length of time. 

Sowing. — The time at which timothy may and ought 
to be sown will vary much with variations in climatic 
conditions. It would probably be correct to say that in 
all places in which it can be grown with a fair measure of 
success, the two best seasons for sowing it are the early 
spring and the early autumn. When sown in the early 
spring a stand is more assured than when sown later, and 
the same is true of early fall sowing. In all the states 
northward and in all the provinces of Canada, in which 
winter rye and winter wheat can be sown with success, 
timothy may sometimes be sown while the snow still lin- 
gers. When thus sown, as the snow melts, it comes in 
contact with the soil while the latter is yet moist, and 
much of the seed is covered in the little openings on the 



TIMOTHY. 61 

surface by soil particles shifting position. If sown 
while the "old snow" is yet several inches deep, the dan- 
ger exists that much of the seed may be carried away by 
the waters formed in the rapid melting of the snows 
through a sudden drop in the temperature, and this con- 
dition may be further aggravated by heavy rains. 

Timothy may also be sown in the spring on ground in 
a honeycombed condition, induced by alternate thawing 
and freezing in the early spring, while there is yet much 
moisture in the* soil. When the seed is sown on soils in 
the condition stated, the work can best be done in the 
early morning when the air is still and while the ground 
is yet frozen. By the time the ground has settled down 
to a normal condition much of the seed is covered, and 
a stand is reasonably assured. On some soils, however, 
timothy seed cannot be sown thus since they do not 
honeycomb. Where they do, a stand is more certain 
than it would be if the sowing Avere deferred until the 
ground was dry enough to render it necessary to cover 
the seed with the harrow. 

On soils which carry crops of winter wheat or winter 
rye, also winter barley or winter oats, and which do not 
honeycomb, the sowing of the seed in spring should be 
deferred until it can be covered with the harrow. If 
sown on such soils without any covering and dry weather 
should follow, the seed or, at least, much of it, would not 
grow, and a stand would not be secured. But in a wet 
season it would likely be different. 

When the seed is sown with any> kind of spring crop, 
it should be put in Avhen practicable at the same time as 
the nurse crop or as soon as possible thereafter. The 



62 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

earlier that such crops can be sown the more assured 
the stand of the clover in a normal season, since more 
time is then given to the plants to become well rooted 
before the arrival of dry and hot weather, when the 
summer is moist, timothy would succeed when sown 
late, but since such seasons cannot be foretold, late 
sowing is always attended with more or less hazard to 
the timothy. 

When timothy is sown alone, it may be best sown in 
the late summer or in the early autumn. When sown 
thus in the spring a stand may also be secured, but seed 
sown thus in the spring seldom produces a full crop of 
hay the same season, while the reverse is true of seed 
sown in the fall. When sown with any of the winter 
crops named above, the aim should be to sow the 
timothy seed along with the nurse crop, or as soon 
as possible thereafter. Early sowing in the autumn 
enables the plants to become so strong that they can 
well resist the adverse influences of winter weather. 
Early sowing in the spring enables the plants to become 
rooted and strong before the coming of the hot and usu- 
ally dry weather of summer. When the seed is sown late 
in the fall the vitality of the young plants may become 
weakened if not destroyed by cold winds and low tem- 
peratures which prevail in certain areas. On soils that 
heave with the frost, the stronger the plants the better 
can they resist the influences which produce such heav- 
ing. Timothy when sown in the autumn would seem to 
be able to withstand adverse influences at least as well as 
winter wheat, winter oats or winter barley. Some farm- 
ers in the northern states claim good results from sow- 
ing timothy in August on overturned stubble land, and 



TIMOTHY. 63 

along with fall turnips. They claim that the turnips 
protected the crop in winter and fed it the next summer. 

Whether timothy should be sown alone or with a 
nurse crop must be determined by the object sought from 
sowing it. Where a full crop of timothy is desired the 
first season after sowing, it ought to be sown alone in the 
ea'rly autumn as intimated above. Sowing it thus in the 
early spring would almost certainly insure a stand and 
would also provide more or less pasture the same season, 
but it would not seem to be good practice in farming to 
sow timothy alone in the spring, unless where a full crop 
could be looked for the same season. 

All things considered, a good stand of timothy is 
more certain when sown along with a winter rather 
than a spring nurse crop, and it will also furnish more 
pasture after the crop has been removed. The dry 
weather of summer more frequently kills the timothy if 
spring sown than does the harsh winter weather that, 
which was properly sown in the autumn. Of the win- 
ter crops, rye and barley are probably the best; and 
after these wheat and oats in the order named (see page 
32). If these crops are pastured rather than harvested, 
tlie return in pasture the same season from the timothy 
will be increased. When sown in the spring, the follow- 
ing nurse crops are good in the order named, viz., spring 
rye or speltz, barley, spring wheat and oats. Timothy 
may also be sown with grain grown for pasture. Such 
grain may be grown alone or in combination with other 
grains, and the timothy also may be sown singly or in 
combination with other grasses and clovers. (See page 
35.) 



64 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Timothy may be sown by hand with the aid of some 
hand soAving machine, the grain drill, and sometimes the 
broadcast seeder. When sown while the snow still lin- 
gers in the spring, hand sowing is a necessity. It may 
also be resorted to under all other conditions except when 
the seed is to be mixed with that of the nurse crop amid 
which it is to grow. But there are some objections to 
hand sowing. First, it involves more labor than sowing 
by some of the other methods named. Especially is this 
true when the comparison lies between hand sowing and 
sowing with a grain drill ; second, the seed can only be 
sown when the air is reasonably calm and still, other- 
wise it will fall irregularly. The fact remains, never- 
theless, that one skilled in hand sowing can sow timothy 
when quite a breeze is blowing by shaping his course 
accordingly, and by adjusting the swing of the hand or 
hands to meet the exigencies of the occasion ; and third, 
the number of persons relatively who can sow such seed 
with regularity and evenness is not large and it is prob- 
ably decreasing. In former years when seeds were all 
sown by hand, a considerable number of farmers could 
sow admirably with both hands, but now, and especially 
in the west, such seed sowers are not numerous. 

If sown with hand machines, the kind must be deter- 
mined by the sower and the conditions under wdiich the 
seed is sown. But the "wheel barrow seed sower" is 
most in favor for such work. Unless when the wind is 
blowing quite strong it will sow the seed evenly, and at 
least as quickly as it can be scattered by a person using 
both hands. Like hand sowing it does not bury the seed. 

Timothy seed is frequently sown with the grain drill. 



TIMOTHY. 65 

In some instances the seed is mixed with the grain pre- 
viously, in others at the time of sowing;. Some farmers 
who till soft and open prairie soils claim that this 
method has proved satisfactory with them. But, on 
heavy soils it would not prove satisfactory, since it 
would bury it far too deeply. There is the further ob- 
jection that it does not feed out evenly along with the 
grain. Because of the smallness of the seeds, it feeds out 
more quickly than the grain, but this can be partially 
obviated by occasionally stirring the seeds more or less 
by hand in the grain box while it is being sown. But 
grain drills are now being introduced which convey the 
seed into the drill tubes with sufficient regularity. There 
is also the further objection that the seed being placed in 
the line of the row with the grain, the plants as they 
grow are crowded and shaded overmuch by the grain. 
Grain drills with a grass seed attachment (see page 21), 
deposit the grain very evenly. Under some conditions it 
is better to have the seed fall before the drill tubes, but 
under other conditions it should fall behind them. 
When it falls before the grain tubes, further covering is 
frequently unnecessary, but not in all instances. When 
it falls behind these, covering with the harrow is usually 
advantageous but not in all instances. Some growers 
cover with the weeder. 

Timothv seed may also be sown with the broadest 
grain seeder. It may be thus sown by mixing the seed 
with the grain. But some broadcast seeders have attach- 
ments for sowing grass seeds, and, when they have, the 
seed should be scattered with these. Whether it should 
fall before the seeder or after it, will depend upon such 
Grasses — 5. 



66 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

conditions as relate to soil and moisture. Except on 
certain prairie soils, scattering the seed before the seed- 
er would usually bury it too deeply. 

The depth to which timothy seed should be buried 
will depend on such conditions as relate to climate, sea- 
son and soil. The more moist the climate, the less the ne- 
cessity for putting the seed down deeply into the soil 
and vice versa. The dryer the summer climate, the 
greater the necessity for putting the seeds down if sown 
in the spring, and the colder the climate, the greater the 
necessity for putting them down in the autumn. The 
later in the spring that the seed is sown, the deeper 
should it be buried, and the same is true of autumn 
seeding on soils that lift. The heavier and firmer the 
soil as a rule, the less deeply does the soil require to be 
covered, and vice versa. Under some conditions the 
seed does not need to be covered in any other way save 
as nature covers it. Under other conditions it may be 
advantageous to cover it as deeply as two inches if not 
indeed, even more deeply. In a majority of instances 
an ideal depth Avould be about half an inch. 

When sown on the snow or on land in the honey- 
combed condition, of course the seed cannot be covered 
by any artificial process. When sown with a grain drill 
or broadcast seeder and along with the grain, it must 
also be buried as deeply as the grain. When sown on 
winter crops in the spring after the soil has become 
firm, the seed ought to be covered with the harrow or 
weeder. The stiffer the soil, the heavier the harrow that 
ought to be used, and the more erect should the teeth 
be when in use, and vice versa. Stirring the surface 



TIMOTHY. 67 

soil thus to cover the timothy seed, will also be helpful 
to the grain crop. When the seed falls before the grain 
tubes of the drill, it frequently requires no other cover- 
ing, but sometimes a stroke of the harrow will be found 
helpful. When the seed falls behind the drill tubes, in 
moist climates no covering is necessary other than that 
given by the rains, but, on such soils, if sowing the tim- 
othy is deferred until after rain falls, in nearly all in- 
stances it would be advantageous to harrow. On prairie 
soils and especially where the conditions are dry, when 
the seed is sown thus, in nearly all instances the har- 
row ought to be used. 

The roller will sometimes furnish a sufficient cover- 
ing. This frequently proves true of soils in moist cli- 
mates, especially those of a heavy texture. But in 
soils that will lift with the wind, the harrow should im- 
mediatelv follow the roller, and in the autumn when 
covering the seed, the roller should seldom or never be 
used without the harrow following it. 

Timothy may be sown in various combinations. The 
most suitable of these is clover in one of its varieties. 
It has peculiar adaptation for such a combination, for 
the reason, first, that it has power to fight the battle 
for existence and to hold its own place when sown along 
with clover. Second, a greater return of the combined 
crop is usually obtained than would be of either plant 
grown singly. Third, the quality of the hay is im- 
proved for general feeding because of its increased fine- 
ness and wider' adaptation to the needs of the various 
classes of live stock. Fourth, the timothy luxuriates 
on the food furnished by the dead clover roots. And 



68 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

fifth, as timothy is usually longer lived than clover, 
it is then possible to secure a longer succession of hay 
or pasture crops than if timothy were sown alone. 

Timothy has been more commonly grown in combi- 
nation with red clover than with any other variety, and 
chiefly for the reason, probably, that red clover is grown 
to a far greater extent than the other varieties. If 
grown along with red clover, the conditions being equal- 
ly favorable to the growth of both, the first year of cut- 
ting, the hay will be chiefly clover, the latter being the 
more vigorous growing plant early in the season. The 
second year timothy will predominate as the clover is 
generally short lived, and the third year the crop will 
be all or nearly all timothy. But the combination of 
timothy and mammoth clover or of timothy and alsike 
clover, is superior to that of timothy and medium red 
clover, and principally for the reason that it mature^ 
about the same time as these, whereas it matures about 
three weeks later than medium clover. It has higher 
adaptation for being grown with alsike clover than with 
the mammoth, since both alsike clover and timothy 
grow at their best in soils rich in humus and moist in 
character. For certain uses, redtop added improves the 
crop, especially in its yield. Timothy also matures 
about the same time as meadow fescue, hence the two 
may be sown in conjunction for hay w T here the condi- 
tions are favorable, but this does not seem to have been 
done to any great extent in America. On some irri- 
gated lands in the west, timothy and alfalfa have been 
grown together with some success. 

For permanent pastures timothy has an abiding place 



TIMOTHY. 69 

because of its power to endure. The prominence given 
to it in these should depend upon its relative adaptation 
as compared with other grasses. It can usually be 
given a place in these north of the fortieth parallel of 
north latitude and in instances not a few considerably 
south of that line. In the upper Mississippi Basin and 
indeed in all the northern states and provinces of Cana- 
da, it should be an important factor in permanent pas- 
tures mixed in character. 

The amounts of timothy seed to sow will of course be 
much influenced by varying conditions. When sown 
alone for hay or pasture it is seldom necessary to sow 
more than 12 pounds of seed per acre, and on some soils 
8 pounds will be found ample. In some instances as 
in the semi-arid belt east of the Rocky mountains, bet- 
ter results may frequently be looked for from sowing 
6 pounds because of the scarcity of moisture. Eight to 
ten pounds may be set down as average amounts. 

When sown with medium red, mammoth or alsike 
clover 6 pounds may be considered an average amount 
to sow, but this may be increased to, say 8 pounds, or 
reduced to 4 pounds according to the object sought. 
Similarly the amount of clover seed in the combination 
for a hay crop will vary, but the amounts respectively 
of common red and mammoth may be set down as 6 to 
8 pounds per acre and of alsike at 4 to 5 pounds. 
When sown with red top only 6 pounds of timothy and 
probably the same amount of red top will suffice. And 
when sown with alsike clover and red top in combina- 
tion 4 pounds of timothy would seem to be enough, 
adding 3 or 4 pounds of red top and 3 pounds of alsike 



70 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

clover. A mixture of timothy and alsike clover only 
is usually preferred as hay for the market to a mixture 
consisting of timothy, alsike clover and red top. 

When the crop is sown to produce seed, a less quan- 
tity will suffice than when it is sown for hay. When 
the crop grows quite thickly, the size of the heads is 
reduced ; when it is sown to produce a fine quality of 
hay, of course thick seeding must be resorted to. Tim- 
othy is seldom sown alone for permanent pasture, but 
if it should be thus sown heavy seeding ought to be 
given. When used as a factor in permanent pastures 
from 3 to 4 pounds per acre ought to suffice. 

Pasturing. — In some sections of the prairie, as where 
for instance the conditions have proved too cold, and 
it may be too dry also for clover, and where blue grass 
or Russian brome has not yet been introduced, timothy 
is about the only cultivated grass used in providing pas- 
ture, and yet it is not pre-eminently a pasture plant. 
This has doubtless arisen from necessity rather than 
from choice in areas not very long settled and in which 
the question of pastures from cultivated grasses has 
not yet been given much attention. The bulk of the 
growth for the season is made before the arrival of mid- 
summer and if not eaten down until well advanced in 
growth, the plants are not highly relished by live stock. 
Particularly is this true of it after the heads have ap- 
peared. Although it stands pasturing well when the 
conditions for growth are generally favorable, on cer- 
tain of the soils of the prairie close pasturing will cause 
it to fail within a very limited number of years. For 
this, doubtless, lack of moisture is in part responsible, 



TIMOTHY. 71 

but on certain soils of the south it will soon fail under 
close grazing even when moisture is sufficiently preva- 
lent. Ordinarily the results will prove much more sat- 
isfactory when timothy forms but one factor of the pas- 
ture, although in providing pasture for horses it has 
found some favor in certain localities though sown 
alone. For pasture as also for hay it is more com- 
monly sown with medium red clover than with any 
other variety of clover or grass, since, when thus grown, 
while the clover lives the grazing can be continued 
through nearly all the year. But when it is desired te 
obtain pasture speedily through the aid of timothy, it 
may be done in certain areas by sowing the seed in the 
autumn along with winter rye. The rye is then pas- 
tured in the spring, and when the rye pasture has failed 
the timothy continues to provide pasture more or less 
through the summer. 

In pasturing timothy the grazing should begin reason- 
ably early in the spring, but very close pasturing at that 
season will materially lessen the yield if a dry season 
should follow. On the other hand if the pasture is 
under stocked it will be eaten closely in certain por- 
tions and in other portions will form heads. When this 
occurs the field mower should be run over the pasture 
before the seed matures. 

Usually close grazing in the autumn will materially 
lessen production the following season, whether the 
plants are devoted to furnishing pasture or hay. Be- 
cause of this many growers of timothy hay for mar- 
ket do not graze the meadows in the autumn. The 
mulch provided by the aftermath furnishes excellent 



72 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

winter protection in bleak locations and is particularly 
favorable to early and vigorous growth the following 
season. But there are localities as in certain of the 
river bottoms west of the Cascade mountains, in which 
timothy meadows are grazed much of the winter and 
yet produce large crops of hay. 

The growth of timothy pastures will be greatly stimu- 
lated by top dressings of farmyard manure. These are 
best applied in the autumn, but may also be applied 
in the winter when the ground is frozen unless on hilly 
land. Since timothy is non-leguminous it is wholly 
dependent on the soil for its nitrogen. Consequently 
fertilizers rich in nitrogen whether applied as farm- 
yard manure or as commercial fertilizers will greatly 
stimulate the growth. But in actual practice, nitrogen 
in the latter form is usually applied to timothy meadows 
rather than to pastures of the same. 

■Harvesting for Hay. — The stage of maturity at which 
timothy ought to be harvested for hay will depend to 
some extent on what it is intended for. For cattle 
and sheep it is frequently cut when coming into bloom. 
Particularly is this true when it grows amid a good 
crop of medium red clover. In order to secure the 
highest feeding value in the clover it is necessary to 
cut the timothy while yet somewhat immature to fur- 
nish the best results in feeding. But even when grown 
alone for the uses named, it should be cut while not 
yet in full bloom. It will then be less woody and more 
palatable than if cut later, although there may be 
some loss in weight. If cut when in full bloom, the 
hay is somewhat more dusty than it would otherwise be, 



TIMOTHY. 73 

hence, so far it is objectionable for being fed to horses. 
When the crop is to be harvested to provide hay for 
horses, or that is to be put upon the market the aim 
should be to cut it at the stage spoken of as the "second 
bloom," which really means when it is about to go out 
of bloom. This may be known by observing when but 
a small part of the tops of the heads only continue to 
produce blossoms. The bloom comes out a little late 
on that part of the head and is likewise a little later 
in departing. When cut at this stage all the weight 
possible is secured in the crop, also all the nutriment 
possible, and it is still relished by horses. 

In a great majority of instances but one crop is ob- 
tained per year, but under the influence of liberal and 
timely applications of commercial fertilizers, nitroge- 
nous in character, it is sometimes possible to get two cut- 
tings a year, but the second will consist chiefly of rowen, 
that is of grass that has not yet reached the heading out 
stage. From two such cuttings of timothy and red top 
grown together, from 5 to 8 tons per acre have been 
cut from year to year for several years past, by Mr. 
Geo. N. Clark of Higganum, Conn. At least 4 

CO / 

tons may be secured from one cutting of timothy alone 
in a single season. Two tons per acre are considered 
a really good crop. But the average crop is about 1J 
to 1^ tons. One ton per acre is considered a light crop. 
In some locations, as on the river bottoms and re- 
claimed tide lands of Western Washington, as many as 
twenty crops of good yielding timothy have been grown 
in succession without apparent diminution in the yield. 
On certain prairie soils where moisture is lacking the 



74 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THENL 

yield the second year of cutting is frequently much di- 
minished. Under ordinary farm conditions where tim- 
othy is grown as a staple crop it is usually cut for but 
two successive seasons, but in some favored situations 
several successive crops are grown. When timothy only 
occupies the land the first cutting commonly gives the 
best yield, but when properly dressed with fertilizers 
the yield ought not to diminish for several years. 

The mower is almost the only implement used for 
cutting timothy, but on new land where stumps abound 
it may be necessary to cut it with the scythe. The fact 
should not be lost sight of that under some conditions 
as those of great drought the stand of the timothy may 
be injured by too close cutting with the mower. When 
the weather is settled and bright, the crop may usually 
be cut one day and stored away some time during the 
following day. When stored thus quickly the tedder 
usually follows the mower, but with an interval of sev- 
eral hours between. The crop is then drawn into win- 
rows with the horse-rake and is loaded from these with 
the hay loader or otherwise. In the advanced stages of 
maturity, it may be possible under the most favorable 
conditions to cut timothy in the morning and store it 
away the same evening. But in such instances a free 
use of the tedder must be made. In showery or damp 
weather and especially when the crop is cut early, it 
should be raked as soon as the work can be done success- 
fully, and then put up into cocks until cured. When 
thus put up, rain will not penetrate these or injure the 
hay nearly so readily as though it were clover. When 
clover and timothy are much mixed and especially when 



TIMOTHY. 75 

clover is abundantly present the safer plan is to cure 
the hay in cocks. But a mixture of timothy is favor- 
able rather than otherwise to the curing of clover since 
it cures more readily. 

Securing Seed. — When the timothy crop is intended 
for seed, it may be necessary to spend some time in re- 
moving weeds from the same either by hand pulling 
or by using the spud, or what is usually better by 
using both. This of course should be done before any 
of the seeds mature. 

Among the noxious weeds that sometimes infest tim- 
othy meadows are : Pigeon weed (Lithospermum ar- 
vense), sometimes called red root; Wild flax (Camelina 
Saiiva), sometimes called false flax; the Canada thistle 
(Cirsium arvense), blue weed (Echium vulgar -e), 
French weed (Thalaspi arvense) and Hungarian mus- 
tard {Sisymbrium sinapistrum) ; also couch or quack 
grass (Agropyrum repens). All these mature their 
seeds before timothy is harvested for seed. 

Timothy is ready for being harvested for seed when 
the seeds turn brown and as soon as ready it should 
be promptly harvested and put in shock. If not har- 
vested with reasonable promptness and if left stand- 
ing long in the shock when harvested there is likely to 
be considerable loss from the shedding of the seed. The 
binder can best be used in cutting the seed crop. The 
next best implement would probably be the self rake 
reaper. When thus cut, however, the labor in handling 
would be greater. The crop may be threshed at once 
or it may be stored for threshing as desired. It is 
threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, but the 



76 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

wind must be shut off sufficiently to do the work prop- 
erly. The hay or straw, as it is sometimes called when 
threshed, has some feeding value, but it is very woody 
and is not much relished by live stock. The stripper 
has occasionally been used in gathering the seed but 
when thus gathered the straw is virtually of no use for 
grazing stock. 

The seed should be carefully fanned before putting 
it on the market. The aim should be to so clean it 
that it will take the market as ~No. 1 and so bring the 
highest price. This it will not do unless carefully 
cleaned, and with a fanning mill well furnished with 
sieves, no matter how good the quality of the seed may 
be, it will be found difficult to remove some kinds of 
weed seeds that may be present. It may also prove 
difficult if not impossible even to remove all the clover 
seeds that may be present should this be desired. Espe- 
cially is this true of alsike clover, the seeds of which 
are so nearly of the same size as those of timothy. But 
some of the seeds of medium red and mammoth clover 
may be so small that they even cannot be all removed. 
When timothy is wanted for seed, therefore, it is not 
wise to grow clover or the clovers along with it. But 
for home sowing the presence of clover seed in many 
instances would not be objectionable. 

As many as 7 or 8 bushels of seed have been threshed 
from an acre of timothy, but from 3 to 4 bushels would 
be a good crop, 4 bushels being above the average. In 
some instances not more than 2 bushels are realized per 
acre. Several crops of seed may be taken in successive 
years from such soils, but the tendency of such crop- 



TIMOTHY. 77 

ping even in these is to decrease the yields, since pro- 
ducing seed tells adversely on the vitality of the plants. 
Growing timothy seed is hard on land. 

Through the medium of timothy seed, many fonl 
weeds have heen introduced, hence the importance of 
getting good pure seed. At every seed warehouse, va- 
rious grades may be purchased, but good pure seed 
only should be bought by the farmer; notwithstanding 
that it will be higher priced than the other grades. It 
could not be otherwise. But in a majority of instances, 
where timothy can be grown successfully, the farmer 
can and ought to grow his own seed. When doing so 
he simply requires to select a part of a field, usually 
not more than two or three acres, in which the timothy 
plants are vigorous and free from weeds. This when 
ripe can be harvested and threshed as described above 
and at the same time as the grain is threshed. If per- 
fectly free from noxious weeds, winnowing such seed 
further would not even seem much of a necessity. In 
this way seed could be saved from year to year that 
would be always fresh and pure. 

Renewing. — The attempt is seldom made to renew 
timothy meadows which at one time possessed a good 
stand of plants, except by top dressing them with fer- 
tilizers. But there are instances in which when the 
seed is sown, only a partial stand, is secured. Some 
parts of the area sown, as the lower land for instance, 
may have a good stand, and the higher land an imper- 
fect stand or even no stand at all, and yet it may be 
desirable to grow timothy on such areas. This may in 
some instances be accomplished by sowing seed where 



78 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

more plants are wanted in the early autumn, and cover- 
ing with the harrow, even at the risk of sacrificing some 
of the plants already growing. In others the seed is 
sown in the early spring without harrowing and in yet 
others it is sown later in the spring and harrowed. 
Whether the attempt to thus complete the stand of the 
plants all over the field will be preferable to ploughing 
the land again and re-seeding it, will depend chiefly 
upon the proportion of the entire area on which a suffi- 
cient stand has been secured. 

In pastures, timothy as other grasses is sometimes 
renewed by adding more seed. This may be done in 
the same way as meadows are renewed, as described 
in the preceding paragraph, but in some instances the 
ground is disked before adding the seed. In yet others 
winter or spring rye is added on the disked parts to pro- 
vide pasture speedily. And yet again timothy is sown 
but not with much frequency and chiefly with the seed 
of other pasture plants on pastures that have been disked 
for the purpose of improving them. 



CTIAPTEK IV. 

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 

Blue grass is of several varieties. But two of these, 
however, are of very much importance in furnishing 
pasture or hay. These are the varieties known as (Poa 
pratensis) and (Poa comprcssa) . The former is more 
commonly known as Kentucky blue grass, but it is also 
called June grass, from the fact, doubtless, that more 
commonly it matures its seeds in June. It has also 
been called Spear grass, and Smooth Stalked Meadow 
grass. The latter i,s usually spoken of as Flat-Stemmed 
Blue grass but is also sometimes called Wire grass and 
Flat Stalked Meadow grass. A third variety commonly 
spoken of as Texas Blue grass (Poa arachnifera) , has 
been found of considerable value in certain of the south- 
ern states, but the discussion of this variety will be de- 
ferred and taken up in Chapter XIV. 

Poa prat en sis varies in height from a few inches to 
18 or 20 inches, but on average soils the height is about 
15 inches, although under the most favorable conditions 
it grows much higher. 

The stem is erect, smooth and round, and the panicle 
is also erect and spreading. The leaves are relatively 
small and numerous. The whole plant is of a light 
green color, but the spikelets frequently assume a brown- 
ish purple tint, somewhat resembling the tint of red 



80 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

top. The root-stocks are creeping, and when well set 
they fill the sod with a close dense turf on a favorable 
soil, but it possesses the soil somewhat slowly, hence, 
two or three years must usually transpire before it thus 
possesses the soil. Poa compressa grows to the height 
of about 1 foot, but, through liberal fertilizing may be 
grown to the height of 2 or even ?> feet. The stems are 
upright and flattened and are nearly solid. The pani- 
cle is short and compact, but expands at the flowering 
season. The leaves are short and fairly numerous. 
The whole plant is of a dark bluish green color, and 
the steins retain their color after the seeds have matured. 
The root-stocks are creeping but under American condi- 
tions do not fill the soil so completely as those of the 
other variety. 

Poa pratensis begins to grow reasonably early in the 
spring and is at its best for pasture in the month of 
May or June. It pushes up its seed-heads rapidly and 
evenly and quickly matures its seed. The heads and 
stems soon assume a yellow tint, and growth even of the 
leaves practically ceases, if the weather is dry, until 
the early fall rains come. The leaves then push out 
again with much vigor and continue to grow until frost 
comes, and where the climate is not severe they keep 
green all winter. Poa compressa does not start quite 
as early as Poa pratensis in the spring. It groAvs more 
slowly and comes into flower several weeks later. It 
usually matures seed in July. While it retains its 
greenness for a long period, it does not grow so freely 
in the autumn as Poa pratensis. Nevertheless under 
favorable conditions it also furnishes good winter pas- 
ture. 




Pig. 3. 
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS (Poa pratensis.) 
Oregon Experiment Station. 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 83 

Both varieties are very palatable. All kinds of stock 
are exceedingly fond of both ; both are exceedingly nu- 
tritions ; while both are hardy, Poa compressa is prob- 
ably the hardier in so far at least as it has greater power 
to grow on poor, stiff, arid, dry soils. Poa pratensis 
is the better pasture grass, but Poa compressa is much 
the superior for hay. The former is highly prized 
and is freely sown, whereas the latter has not been taken 
at its true worth, and has usually grown as it were spon- 
taneously. Consequently its distribution does not near- 
ly equal that of the other variety. Taking it all in all, 
Kentucky blue grass is probably the most valuable pas- 
ture grass in America, but some authorities claim first 
place in this respect for orchard grass. Unquestion- 
ably, however, blue grass is more generally grown in 
the United States than orchard grass, and the prefer- 
ence thus shown for blue grass is not accidental since 
blue grass is more palatable and nutritious and has a 
wider distribution. 

Distribution. — Blue grass (Poa pratensis) and also 
(Poa compressa) are indigenous to Europe, and it is 
thought also to certain parts of the United States. It 
is thought to be native to the Wabash valley having been 
found growing there in 1811 by the troops of William 
Henry Harrison on their march to Tippecanoe. It 
grows in considerable areas of Asia also and in certain 
parts of New Zealand and Australia. It is becoming 
in a sense cosmopolitan in the temperate zone. But 
nowhere does it grow better than in certain parts of the 
United States and Canada. In these it is more highly 
prized than in Great Britain, since in that country its 



84 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

aggressive character enables it to crowd other valuable 
grasses out of the permanence which ought to be re- 
tained in the same. 

These two varieties of blue grass grow best in tem- 
perate climates. They can stand much cold in win- 
ter and also heat in summer without succumbing to 
either, but they do not grow well in a dry climate or 
under conditions too dry for the successful growth of 
the common cereals. It is found at its best where the 
rains are moderate and frequent throughout much of 
the year. 

It is doubtless correct to say that blue grass is grown 
more or less in every state and territory in the Union. 
It would be equally correct to say that from the Missis- 
sippi to the Atlantic it occupies more territory than 
any other grass, and that in the greater portion of the 
territory thus occupied it has been found more useful 
in providing grazing than any other grass. The same 
statement will apply with almost equal force to the 
country westward from the Mississippi for a consider- 
able distance, or until the areas are reached in which 
the rainfall is light. From the line which forms the 
eastward border of the area named until the Rocky 
mountains are reached, and in the plains between the 
mountains, as for instance, the bench lands in the Big 
Bend country in Washington, the conditions are too 
dry for the successful growth of blue grass. But in 
the bench lands of the foot hills it is being found that 
blue grass will yet fulfill a not unimportant mission. 
This grass grows at its best in the United States in the 
limestone soils of Kentucky and in the states lying 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 85 

northward from these until the lakes are reached. 
These are the soils that grow hardwood timber, as for 
instance hard maple, elm, basswood, ash, birch and 
burr oak. The very highest adaptation for it, there- 
fore, is found in what were the hardwood timber areas 
of Kentucky, Missouri, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, 
New York, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. It 
also prevails in the New England and eastern states. 
While in them the climate is very suitable for growing 
it, the prevailing soils are such as only to produce a 
moderate growth. In the southern states and especially 
on the uplands and mountains blue grass grows freely. 
But, because of certain soil peculiarities in some of 
these, it has been stated that, it is not so nutritious as 
on the limestone soils of the central states. On soils 
in the south that are sandy, the lack of fertility and 
the summer heat are adverse to high production in blue 
grass as pasture or as hay. On the moist Pacific slope 
in Washington and Oregon this grass grows with much 
satisfaction where it has been introduced. 

In Canada, blue grass grows in good form in all the 
timber country from Winnipeg to the Atlantic. Nat- 
urally infertile soils are against the most abundant pro- 
duction in much of the soil in the maritime provinces, 
but in Ontario blue grass grows with as much luxuri- 
ance as in Kentucky, with the difference, however, that 
the season for its growth is shorter than in Kentucky. 
In the prairie soils between Winnipeg and the moun- 
tains, blue grass can be grown, but less satisfactorily 
as Winnipeg is receded from until the Rocky mountains 
are reached. In this area Russian brome {Bromus in- 



86 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ermis) will be superior. West of the mountains is a 
country high in adaptation to the growing of blue grass. 
But in no part of Canada does blue grass grow better 
than in Ontario. In some parts of that province its 
growth is not excelled on any portion of the American 
continent. 

Soil. — Blue grass is adapted to many kinds of soil. 
In fact there is scarcely any variety of the same in 
which it will not grow to some extent unless it be soil 
charged with alkali in a considerable degree, or sandy 
soil low in fertility and deficient in moisture. The 
wide range in adaptation to soil conditions which this 
grass possesses, along with the even wider range which 
it has of accommodating itself to climatic conditions 
chiefly account for the fact, that on the North American 
continent it is now or is eventually going to be practi- 
cally cosmopolitan in one of its varieties. 

The highest conditions for the growth of blue grass 
are found in clay loam soils and more particularly in 
those underlaid with clay sufficiently retentive to retain 
moisture at least in fair degree, and yet sufficiently open 
to prevent water from lying unduly on the surface. In 
other words the highest conditions for growing blue 
grass are found in soils well adapted to the growth 
of what are termed hard woods of varied character. 
This explains, in part at least, why blue grass so quick- 
ly takes possession of forest lands when cleared and 
kept clear of timber. 

Next in adaptation, probably, come rather stiff clays, 
the producing powers of which have not been impaired 
by working when unduly wet or by pasturing when in 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 87 

a similar condition. After these may be placed loam 
soils, giving the precedence of course to clay loams, 
rather than to sandy loams. The humus soils of the 
western prairies, originally devoid of timber, cannot 
be said to be possessed of the highest adaptation for 
blue grass. On the other hand the adaptation of these 
is not low. It is true, nevertheless, that ordinarily 
blue grass does not make in these that thick, close, dense 
growth that it makes in clay loam soils, nor will it with- 
stand vicissitude so well. This explains, in part at 
least, the greater difficulty ?n maintaining excellent blue 
grass lawns in cities built on purely prairie humus 
soils. On the soils of the far west volcanic in their 
origin, blue grass will grow well where moisture is suffi- 
ciently present, but in much of the area covered by 
these soils, water is wanting in that degree which hin- 
ders seriously the growth of the grass. 

The degree of the adaptation on muck lands for grow- 
ing blue grass depends much on the nature of the muck 
and. on what lies beneath it. If the muck is consider- 
ably mixed Avith soil washed down from higher land, 
and if at the same time it is underlaid with clay, other 
conditions being correct, blue grass will grow admir- 
ably. On the other hand, if the muck is chiefly or en- 
tirely composed of vegetable matter so little reduced 
that many of the characteristics of peat appertain to 
it, its adaptation to the growth of blue grass will be 
considerably lessened. If it is underlaid with quick 
sand, the degree of the adaptation will be still further 
lessened. 

In peat soils the adaptation for blue grass is lowei 



88 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

than in muck soils but much depends on the character 
of the peat. If much reduced and the supply of moist- 
ure is ample, such a soil may maintain a good growth 
of blue grass, but, if the peat is but little reduced and 
if the moisture is deficient, as it sometimes is in swamps 
too deeply drained, the grass may not be able to main- 
tain a stand upon it. 

From what has been said about muck and peat soils, 
it is very evident that the adaptation of these to the 
growth of blue grass will vary exceedingly. In some 
instances, more particularly when they are mixed with 
deposits brought in from higher ground, and moreover 
when the water-table lies at a correct distance from the 
surface, such soils produce pasture with much abun- 
dance and continuity. Under other conditions the re- 
turns are meagre, and under yet other conditions this 
grass may refuse to grow at all on peaty soils. When 
soil saturation is unduly abundant and prolonged, 
coarser grasses will be sustained, as for instance wire 
grass. Nevertheless it is true that blue grass will .live 
under a thin covering of water at certain seasons for 
several weeks. 

Whether blue grass will grow at all on sandy soils 
with but little earth in them will depend almost entirely 
on the degree of moisture present in them during the 
growing season. On the other hand, there are certain 
moist sandy loam soils which are highly adapted to its 
growth. All degrees of adaptation are found between 
these extremes in sandy soils, according as they are in- 
fluenced by components other than sand, by moisture 
and by temperature. But, as a rule, the adaptation of 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 89 

really sandy soils to the growth of blue grass is low 
rather than high. Poa compressa would seem to be the 
hardier grass of the two since it will grow reasonably 
well on dry, sandy, thin soils and gravelly knolls provid- 
ing the rainfall is sufficient. Nevertheless, moist grav- 
elly clays are much better suited to its growth. 

Place in the Rotation. — Blue grass in the strict sense 
of the term, is not a rotation crop, since its highest use 
is the production of pasture, and because it takes more 
than one year to establish a good blue grass pasture. A 
place is seldom given to it, therefore, in short rotations, 
but of course as with alfalfa, it has a place in long ro- 
tations. In other words there are certain crops which 
it may be made to follow or precede with more of fit- 
ness than if made to follow or precede other crops. 
Owing, however, to its aggressive character it may be 
made to follow almost any crop. 

As with all other grasses it will become established 
more quickly and will grow more vigorously when sown 
on clean rather than on foul land. The aim should be, 
therefore, to sow it after some cleaning crop as corn, 
sorghum, the non-saccharine sorghums, potatoes, beans, 
cow peas and soy beans when these crops have been 
given clean cultivation. But there may be conditions 
in which it may be proper to sow blue grass on soil that 
is foul with certain forms of weed life, and also worn, 
as for instance, when the pasture is wanted at the 
earliest moment practicable, and no other soil properly 
prepared is at hand on which to sow it. Observe, how- 
ever, that it is only in exigencies that this course is to 
be commended. When once it has obtained a foothold 



90 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

an such soils, it will soon prove more than a match for 
nearly all forms of weed life. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation that is best 
suited to the sowing of bine grass will vary with the 
soil, the climatic conditions, and the season for sow- 
ing. Sandy soils and also humus and muck soils are 
usually possessed of a pulverization sufficiently fine to 
secure good germination in the seed. The labor in 
preparing these is one of smoothing and levelling rather 
than one of pulverizing after they have been ploughed 
or disked. In some instances impaction, through the 
use of the roller, will be helpful. Loam soils may call 
for more of pulverization, but usually the labor in pre- 
paring these is not great. Clay soils are the most diffi- 
cult by far to prepare, owing to the labor called for in 
pulverizing them. In many instances they are cloddy, 
hence much harrowing and rolling alternately are usual- 
ly necessary to secure a tilth sufficiently fine. This 
work may in some instances be greatly facilitated by not 
failing to take advantage of propitious seasons for se- 
curing the requisite fineness of pulverization, as for in- 
stance, after the falling of gently saturating rains, but 
not too soon after these fall. Where rainfall is abun- 
dant and well distributed, a fine pulverization is not 
so necessary as under conditions the opposite. 

On lands newly cleared of timber, no further prepa- 
ration is necessary or even possible usually, than clear- 
ing off the encumbering logs and brush. And even 
such clearing may not always be absolutely necessary, 
as among logs and brush not dense or tall, it may be 
quite possible to start blue grass growing. On stubble 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 91 

lands where blue grass is sown in the autumn, it may 
in some instances be advisable to plough the land, as 
when it is very foul with weeds. In other instances, 
disking may suffice, as when the surface is clean but 
unduly firm. And in yet other instances no prepara- 
tion may be necessary, as when the surface is clean, soft 
and moist. 

When the seed is sown on clay soils in the autumn, a 
pulverization of soil less fine will answer than if sown 
on the same in the spring, especially when these are 
exposed to alternations of freezing and thawing during 
the winter, and to the sweep of cold winds. But when 
sown on these in the sj)ring also, pulverization too fine 
would be possible, especially in climates where occa- 
sionally downpours of rain occur, as these would encrust 
clay surfaces when fine beyond a certain degree. 

When the seed is sown in the spring, fine pulveriza- 
tion is more necessary than in the autumn, and for 
reasons that will be apparent from what has been said 
above. But, happily the degree of the pulverization 
that is best suited to the nurse crop will also be best 
suited to the blue grass sown with it. That it is so is 
fortunate, since, unless when sown for permanent pas- 
ture, it is more common to sow blue grass with a nurse 
crop, the reasons for which are given later. (See page 
94.) 

It is not usual to fertilize land on which blue grass 
is to be sown with a view specially to promote the growth 
of the blue grass. Since it is able to get and to main- 
tain a hold on nearly all kinds of soil without such aid, 
fertilizers are usually reserved for crops which have 



92 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

less power to gather plant food in the spil. Fertilizers 
that are suitable for timothy will also be suitable for 
blue grass. (See page 72.) The method of fertiliz- 
ing the pastures by top dressing them, would seem to 
be preferred to that which fertilizes the land on which 
the seed is to be sown, as the young plants grow too slow- 
ly to make the best use possible of the fertility thus ap- 
plied. But lands that are well filled with vegetable 
matter are much more favorable to the growth of the 
young plants than land in which the same is deficient. 

Sowing. — In northern areas it is more common to 
sow blue grass in the spring than in the autumn, and 
probably for the reason chiefly, that it is more conven- 
ient to sow it then, especially when sown as it usually 
is in the north, along with other grass mixtures. But 
it may in some instances be sown with much advantage 
in these areas in the fall. In fact it is possible to sow 
it successfully under some conditions during almost any 
part of the season of growth. When sown in the spring, 
the earlier that it is sown the more successfully it is 
likely to grow. When sown in the autumn, the sooner 
that it is put into the ground after moisture comes, the 
more certain is the stand likely to be. In the states 
of the middle south as for instance, Kentucky, where 
probably this grass grows at its best, it is commonly 
sown in the autumn, especially when sown by itself to 
provide permanent pasture. 

Nature teaches an important lesson with reference 
to the sowing of this grass. Where not grazed too close- 
ly it sows a crop of seed every year. The seed matures 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 93 

upon the stalk and then falls down or is wafted by the 
winds to adjacent areas. Under normal conditions the 
seed thus wafted would seem to have much power to 
grow. Of this fact evidence is furnished in the almost 
absolute certainty with which blue grass ultimately 
takes possession of waste land in a locality into which it 
has once been introduced and in which any of the seed 
is allowed to mature. 

The seed thus scattered must, in great part at least, 
grow without a covering, hence the plan of growing blue 
grass seed as soon as practicable after it is gathered, 
even though it should be sown in the chaff, would seem 
to be a commendable one. In southern latitudes, there- 
fore, it would seem to be the better plan to sow blue 
grass seed in the late summer and early autumn, since 
in these it is nearly always practicable to sow it at that 
season. The power which this grass has to grow with- 
out a covering, especially when it is fresh and sown in 
the chaff, explains why a stand can usually be obtained 
with much certainty by cutting the grass like hay as 
soon as the seed matures and scattering it over the 
ground where a stand is desired. The hay thus scat- 
tered affords protection for the young plants that grow 
from the seeds when they come in contact with the 
earth. Blue grass has thus been introduced on to sod- 
bound native prairie where close pasturing has followed 
this method of scattering the hay. It may be scattered 
thus from the stack in winter if desired. 

Blue grass is nearly always sown by hand, partly 
for the reason that but few if any machines yet intro- 
duced sow it satisfactorily, and also because the danger 



94 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

would be present that in some soils at least, drill ma- 
chines would cover the seed too deeply. When sown 
in mixtures, it is common to mix the blue grass seeds 
along with the seeds of other grasses before these are 
sown. It is usually covered with a light harrow, since, 
as previously intimated, a deep covering for this grass 
is not necessary, although the proper depth at which 
to cover it will vary with conditions. On soils which 
incline to cloddiness, the roller will in many instances 
provide a sufficient covering, but on such soils it ought 
not to be covered thus, unless the harrow is made to 
follow the roller. 

In very many instances, blue grass is sown with a 
nurse crop. The exceptions include lands more or less 
deforested, rugged lands difficult of tillage and by- 
places generally. Even when sown to provide perma- 
nent pasture, it is frequently sown thus, but to this 
there are some exceptions also, especially in areas the 
most favorable to its growth. In northern areas, win- 
ter rye is probably the best nurse crop with which to sow 
it, and chiefly for the reason that it may be sown on the 
rye in the early autumn which is really the best season 
for sowing it, all things considered, only a moderate 
seeding of the rye should be used. If the rye is grazed off 
in the spring, the blue grass will develop more quickly 
and strongly than if the rye is harvested. In areas 
with winters sufficiently mild, blue grass may also be 
sown with winter barley and winter oats, also winter 
wheat. When sown in the spring with a nurse crop 
that is to mature, spring rye or barley is the most favor- 
able to the growth of the grass. But if sown with a 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 95 

thin seeding of oats cut early for hay, the results will 
probably be quite as good. 

Blue grass should not be sown in short rotations, since 
it is slow in becoming well established. In rotations 
of some considerable duration, it is frequently sown in 
combination with medium red, mammoth or alsike 
clover, or with all three combined, with white clover 
and timothy added. The clovers and timothy are in- 
tended to furnish grazing until the blue grass becomes 
well established. Blue grass, orchard grass and white 
clover make an excellent combination for such rotations 
where the conditions favor the growth of all three. On 
low-lying soils such as are found in sloughs, blue grass, 
red top, timothy and alsike clover make a good combi- 
nation for hay or for pasture. In latitudes in which 
the winters are stern, blue grass, Russian brome grass 
and white clover grown together, promise much for 
such rotations, but experience in growing them thus is 
not of sufficient duration to determine fully the value of 
such a pasture crop. It is not yet known whether blue 
grass or Russian brome if sown together would obtain 
the masterv or if both would continue to grow indefinite- 
ly. On lands once covered with forest, it is probable 
that blue grass would crowd the Russian brome, but 
that on real prairie soils the reverse would prove true. 
When sown in mixtures intended for permanent pas- 
tures, the relative prominence given to the blue grass 
should increase with its relative adaptation to the local- 
ity, and, even when blue grass is intended to be virtually 
the sole grass in the pasture, white clover ought to be 
sown along with it. The clover probably aids the growth 



96 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

of the blue grass rather than hinders it, since it brings 
nitrogen to the soil. It also grows most vigorously after 
the blue grass has begun its summer rest, hence the sea- 
son of pasturage is prolonged. The two will also grow 
thus together for an indefinite period. 

The amounts of seed to sow will vary with soil and 
climatic conditions and with the combinations in which 
the seed is sown. When sown alone on good soils and 
without a nurse crop it is seldom necessary to sow 
more than 20 to 28 pounds of good clean seed per 
acre, but if sown in the chaff not less probably than 3 
or 4 bushels per "acre would be required. When sown 
with Russian brome grass and white clover without a 
nurse crop 6 pounds of the brome grass and 1 pound of 
the clover, and 10 pounds of the blue grass per acre will 
usually make a sufficient seeding. But to increase the 
grazing the first year, it will doubtless be found profit- 
able to add 3 to 4 pounds of timothy per acre. When 
sown on low lands with timothy, red top and alsike clo- 
ver, 4, 4 and 3 pounds each per acre of these respective 
forage plants, with 7 pounds of blue grass ought to 
suffice. When the mixture consists of blue grass, tim- 
othy and medium red or mammoth clover, 7 pounds of 
the blue grass, 6 of timothy and 3 to 4 pounds of medi- 
um red clover per acre ought to suffice. When sown in 
combination with many varieties of grass and clover, 
as in making permanent pastures mixed in character, 
usually not more than 5 pounds of blue grass per acre 
will be required. Where white clover is not already es- 
tablished in any locality, that is, where it has not been 
grown long enough to lodge many of its seeds in the 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 97 

soil, it will always or nearly always be in order to add 
a little white clover to any of the mixtures referred to. 
In some instances it may not be necessary to sow blue 
grass in these, since, in certain soils on which it has 
been grown for some time, these would seem to be so 
filled with the seed that blue grass within two, three or 
four years, will have possessed the soil to the extent of 
crowding the other grasses to their injury. 

When purchasing blue grass seed, much attention 
should be given to the character of the same in regard 
to cleanliness, more particularly in regard to freeness 
from chaff. The standard weight of blue grass is 14 
pounds to the measured bushel, and yet as handled by 
seedsmen the weight varies from 8 to 30 pounds per 
bushel. This point should not be overlooked when deter- 
mining the amount to sow. 

Pasturing. — Under certain conditions blue grass will 
readily establish itself, though live stock should have 
constant access to the fields where it has been sown. 
There are other conditions where such treading would 
injure both the soil and also the grass. But, generally 
speaking, grazing closely while the plants are young 
does not injure blue grass as it would other grasses. In 
fact such close grazing may be advantageous to it by 
removing shade, as when the seed is sown on the un- 
broken prairie. Until blue grass becomes well establish- 
ed on clay soils, it should not be grazed when these are 
unduly wet, or the soil will poach and will also become 
impacted to the injury of the grazing. However, when 
blue grass has covered the soil with a thick sod it may be 
Grasses — 7. 



98 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

grazed even on stiff clays with but little injury to the 
land at nearly all seasons of the year. 

Blue grass may usually be grazed closely all the while 
without destroying the stand of the same. But when 
grazed thus a maximum of pasture under the conditions 
existing cannot be secured, and the drier the climate 
the less, relatively, will the grazing be that is pro- 
duced. When kept eaten down closely, the capacity of 
the plants to grow is lessened, through a less vigorous 
vitality than they would otherwise have, and through 
the increased exposure of the soil to the evaporating in- 
fluences of the sun. Such exposure in winter is also 
adverse to the most vigorous growth and this influence 
is intensified with increase in the severity of the cold 
when the ground is uncovered. Grazing in winter under 
such conditions is also to some extent harmful, but blue 
grass pasture seldom succumbs entirely because of close 
grazing, on account of adverse climatic conditions, 
where it has once become established. 

To obtain the largest possible amount of pasture from 
blue grass it should not be grazed closely at any season. 
So great ordinarily is the increase in the yield of the 
pasture, when thus managed, that in some instances it 
is not grazed at all in the spring. When thus left un- 
grazed at that season, the grass reaches a maximum of 
growth usually in May or June, according to the lati- 
tude, and matures more or less seed. The seed stems 
dry so as to be of little service for food, but the mass of 
fine leaves near the ground usually retain their green- 
ness during the summer and renewed growth follows 
the falling of autumnal rains. Such pastures furnish 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. S>9 

excellent summer and autumn grazing, especially for 
horses and cattle. They usually lay on flesh quickly 
while being thus grazed. In climates sufficiently mild, 
these pastures also furnish good winter grazing for these 
classes of animals. For sheep and swine they are not 
so palatable, because of the presence of weedy seed 
stems, nevertheless sheep are likely to do well on such 
pastures more especially in the winter. They and also 
horses will even paw off the light snows and maintain 
themselves in good form from such grazing where the 
climatic conditions are not too severe. 

When blue grass pastures are grazed off closely in 
the spring and early summer, and the stock is then re- 
moved during the greater part of the season, the grass 
will usually make a good growth. Where the winters 
are mild, such grazing will be found particularly adapt- 
ed to the grazing of sheep. But when covered with 
white frost, animals turned upon them early in the day 
should first have access to some kind of fodder, lest dis- 
orders in the digestion should be produced. Where the 
winters are stern, these pastures should furnish excel- 
lent grazing in the early spring. They begin to grow 
considerably earlier than when they have not been thus 
protected, and the growth is more vigorous. The fresh 
blades growing up in the grass add to its palatability, 
and the blades and stems that have cured on the ground 
counteract the tendency in the new growth at such a 
season to produce in animals a too lax condition in the 
digestion. Moreover these pastures furnish abundant 
grazing at that early season when it cannot so well be 
obtained from any other source. Blue grass when re- 

L.ofG. 



100 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

tained for pasturing for prolonged periods crowds out 
nearly all kinds of weeds. Among the exceptions are 
ironweed (Vernonia norcboraccnsis), blueweed (Echi- 
ufn vulga/re), the oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucaiir 
i he mum) and in some instances the Canada thistle 
(Cirsium arvense). When these are present in any 
considerable numbers it may be advantageous to clip 
them annually with the scythe or with the field mower 
to prevent them from maturing seed, as live stock are not 
likelv to graze them off. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Blue grass being rather a pas- 
ture than a hay plant, is not usually made into hay, 
unless in the absence of better hay products. It is not 
sufficiently bulky, hence the yield per acre is not large, 
and unless cut with much promptness as soon as it 
reaches the proper stage, it becomes woody. To secure 
a large amount of blue grass hay would necessitate 
mowing over a relatively large area in proportion to 
the bulk. But this does not mean that blue grass does 
not produce a large amount relatively of pasture per 
acre, since, in growing pasture, it virtually produces 
two growths in the year, that is, in the spring and in 
the autumn. .Ror do the above remarks apply equally 
to the variety Poa compressa, which, in suitable soils, 
will yield at least a ton per acre of good hay. The crop 
is not bulky, but it weighs very heavily in proportion to 
its bulk and the hay is much relished, especially by 
horses. Moreover it has the peculiar property of gum- 
ming the knives of the mower while it is being cut. 

Blue grass is ready for being cut when in early bloom. 
It is not difficult to cure, hence, in good weather it may 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 101 

be cured in the winrow after having lain in the swath for 
a period more or less prolonged. Running the tedder 
along the winrow will facilitate the curing process, but 
usually the crop is not bulky enough to call for the use 
of the tedder, before it is raked in winrows. Of course 
it may be cured in the cock when desired, and when thus 
put up, the cocks are not readily penetrated by rain. 
This accounts for the fact that hay cut in fence corners 
and by-places, which is frequently chiefly blue grass, 
has long furnished a favorite material for topping stacks 
of grain, clover and in fact nearly all kinds of farm 
crops. 

On certain soils, blue grass comes into meadows with- 
out being sown, and so as to furnish a large part of 
the hay crop. In these instances it is usually ready for 
cutting earlier than other grasses. The best time to har- 
vest the crop under such conditions should be deter- 
mined by the extent to which the other hay plants are 
present, and by their proportionate value for hay. The 
aim should be to cut the crop at that stage which will 
give the largest amount of good food, though some of 
the plants should be over mature and some of them un- 
der mature. 

Securing Seed. — While it would seem to be true that 
blue grass is capable of maturing seed in any climate in 
which the plants will live, it is also true that the prac- 
tice of harvesting it for seed is confined to but limited 
areas. At the present time the larger portion of the 
seed sold in the market as Kentucky blue grass comes 
from certain counties of Kentucky, Iowa and Missouri. 
Of course, some other states furnish more or less. The 



102 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

reason why the states named furnish so mnch seed is 
owing probably to the relative abundance of the seed 
production in these, but is also owing in part, doubt- 
less, to the fact that in other areas, prolific also in the 
production of seed, the farmers have not yet come to 
realize the profit that may accrue from harvesting blue 
grass seed. Special care is also necessary in handling 
and storing the seed, as shown later, and this may also 
act as a deterring influence. But, whatever the reasons 
that deter farmers from harvesting the seed for market, 
with the aid of a stripper operated by hand or by horse 
power, they may without difficulty collect seed for sow- 
ing on their own farms and of the finest quality, which 
may be sown in the chaff. 

The seed, as just intimated, is harvested with a strip- 
per, of which there are two leading kinds, viz., the ro- 
tary and the comb. The former is simply a box on 
wheels with a revolving cylinder in front with numer- 
ous wire nails in it. This revolves rapidly and throws 
the seed into the box. The latter is a platform hung on 
wheels and has in front a heavy steel comb. It is im- 
portant that the pastures be kept free from weeds, as 
any leaves of these which grow in the grass will be 
thrown into the box along with the seed. Portions of 
the heads are also thus mixed with the seed: The revolv- 
ing stripper, which is usually about as wide as the field 
mower, can harvest more acres in a day than the field 
mower, since it may be driven faster. The seed is 
ready for being harvested as soon as the heads turn 
brown. The harvesting season usually lasts from say 10 
to 14 days, but this is influenced by locality and is some- 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 103 

times of even less duration. The yield of course varies 
greatly; the approximate average may be put at 7 to 8 
bushels per acre, but in some instances as many as 25 
bushels have been harvested. 

Great care must be used in curing blue grass seed or 
it will lose its germinating power. It heats very read- 
ily, so much so, that what is gathered should be emptied 
from the sacks at the end of each half day's work. It 
should be spread on a tarpaulin or on clean ground to dry 
in the sun, or on a drying floor with the opportunity for 
more or less draught to pass over it. On the floor it 
would not be well to spread seed more deeply than two 
inches at the first. The depth may be gradually in- 
creased, but at no time probably should it be more than 
say 15 to 20 inches. So quickly does the newly stripped 
seed heat when not thinly spread, that it has been known 
to entirely lose its germinating power within 24 hours 
of the time at which it was harvested. While newly 
harvested seed may possess 95 per cent in germinating 
power, seed put upon the market is considered good when 
the germinating power is 50 per cent. After the seed 
has been dried sufficiently it is usually shipped to cer- 
tain centers where it is cleaned with machinery espe- 
cially adapted to the work. 

This grass will furnish seed in suitable localities for 
successive years. Nor does the reaping of seed hinder 
grazing the land subsequently the same reason. It is 
claimed that after the seed is harvested, more grazing 
will be obtained from such a pasture than from one 
that has been grazed closely from spring until fall. The 
claim is probably correct, since the harvesting only re- 



104 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

moves the seed, and as has been shown previously, close 
grazing all the time tends to lessen production. 

Renewing. — The renewing of bine grass pastures, im- 
portant as it is, calls for further experimenting before 
all is known that ought to be known with reference to it, 
but some things regarding this question have been settled 
with at least a measure of definiteness. Among these 
are the following: 

1. That in many localities bine grass pastures at 
length become "sodbound," that is, the plants become 
so numerous and the roots so matted, that the free 
growth of the grass is so hindered that the maximum 
of production is reduced in proportion as this condition 
exists, and it becomes further aggravated in dry weath- 
er. 2. That this sodbound condition may be so dealt 
with as to greatly improve the yield of the pasture crops. 
This has been attempted in various ways, but chiefly 
through the aid of the disk harrow, and also the com- 
mon harrow, has it been successfully accomplished. The 
following has probably been the most successful of all 
the ways that have been tried of renovating bine grass 
pastures which have been sodbound: The disk harrow 
is run over the sod at that season when the frost is only 
out sufficiently to allow the disks to cut down to the 
depth of two or three inches, and yet the frost below pre- 
cludes the sinking of the feet of the horses to any con- 
siderable depth. The disk is then run straight crosswise 
or at an angle over the land previously disked. The 
disks are set so as to leave the cuts of sod somewhat on 
edge. The harrow thou follows at once or a little later. 
If other seed is to bo sown, as white clover, or orchard 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 105 

grass or both, or indeed any kind of clover, it should 
usually be sown before the harrow. The necessity for 
using a roller will depend upon conditions. And there 
may be some soils, as for instance, very stiff clays, 
where such treatment would injure the land through 
poaching, unless alternate freezing and thawing fol- 
lowed quite soon. This method of renewal has succeeded 
well on prairie soils. But the attempts to improve blue 
grass pastures by simply running the harrow over them 
have not proved markedly successful. 3. That when 
the stand of the seed on blue grass pastures is thin or 
spotted, it may be renewed in some instances by simply 
adding more seed. In other instances by pasturing so 
lightly that some seed will mature and fall, and through 
its subsequent distribution by the winds will strengthen 
the pasture. And in yet other instances by disking those 
portions of the pasture with but little grass on them 
and sowing and adding more seed along with rye or some 
other grain. When more seed is scattered over the 
pastures, the early autumn will probably prove the best 
season for sowing it, using, if possible, fresh seed, and 
harrowing or not harrowing, according to conditions. 
The next most favorable season for doing this is the 
early spring. Winter rye will usually be found the most 
suitable grain to sow on the disked portions of pastures, 
as, if sown in the early fall, it will furnish grazing both 
fall and spring, while the grass sown along with it is be- 
coming rooted. And 4. Blue grass pastures may be 
greatly strengthened by spreading over them farmyard 
manure, fresh or at any stage in its decay. The man- 
imre may be applied at any season of the year. But 



106 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the best results probably are secured by spreading it in 
the fall and also in the early winter. It then acts as a 
protecting mulch, and since the soluble portions wf'h 
down into the surface of the soil and are taken up loy 
the grass roots, the result is a free and abundant growth 
of grass. Nor does the manure when thus applied affect 
injuriously the palatability of the grass. This it does 
to some extent, if applied after the grass has made much 
growth in the spring. 

Commercial fertilizers are seldom applied to blue 
grass pastures and chiefly for the reason that they can- 
not be spared for such a use. In other words, it is con- 
sidered more necessary to use them for other crops. But 
should the circumstances justify the application, the 
growth of the grass may be much stimulated by their use. 
The needs of the soil should determine the fertilizer to be 
used. Usually nitrogen may be applied with advantage 
in the spring after growth has begun. One or two dress- 
ings may be given as necessary, with an interval of sev- 
eral weeks between them. On nearly all soils blue grass 
will be benefited by dressing it with phosphates fall and 
spring, and the same is true of dressings of potash. The 
increased growth from dressing with wood ashes is also 
marked. 

Blue grass will, on certain soils, come into the mead- 
ows and pastures to the extent of finally crowding out 
the grasses composing them, without having been sown 
in the same, unless by the hand of nature. This it will 
do under all or nearly all conditions quite favorable to 
its growth. For instance, where timothy and clover are 
sown and cut for two or three successive seasons for 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 107 

meadow, this grass is pretty certain to appear more or 
less the second year, and if grazing follows in subsequent 
years it will not be very long till the pasture is one of 
blue grass. This would seem to indicate that many of 
the seeds of this ffrass are lying in such soils in a dor- 
mant state, and ready to grow when the conditions favor 
such growth. 

It is possible also to so transform the grasses of the 
prairie without ploughing them that they will ultimately 
become essentially blue grass pastures. This may be 
done by scattering seed over them, not necessarily in 
large quantities at one time, in the autumn or early 
spring. The best time probably for sowing such seed 
is just after it lias been gathered. Especially is this 
true of areas in which the summer climate is drv, as 
for instance, the bench lands of Rocky mountain areas. 
The seed thus used may be sown quite as well in the 
chaff as in the cleaned form. In due time some of the 
plants will grow. If only a part of them are allowed 
to mature their seeds, as when the grazing is not too 
close, these fall down and are scattered more or less and 
produce fresh plants. The transforming process is 
hastened by the increase of plants through the root- 
stalks pushed out from the growing plants. It may be 
still further hastened by adding more seed the second 
autumn or the third. The advantage from sowing the 
seed in small quantities at one time and repeating the 
sowing another season lies in the fact that the risk of 
losing all or nearly all the seed is lessened, should it all 
be sown at one time, and a very dry season follow. When 
the seed is sown thus it would not seem necessary to 



108 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

scatter more than three or four pounds per acre at, 
one time. The period required to transform pasture 
thus will of course vary greatly, but the transforming 
work is usually done in a few years. There are, how-' 
ever, localities which include wide areas, as on certain 
of the ranges, especially those of the south and west, 
where such transformation cannot he made, owing to 
the aridity of the conditions. 

When blue grass is newly introduced into any locality 
it may be established readily in by-places with but little 
expense, if the seed grown even on limited areas is 
saved by means of a hand stripper and scattered over 
these as soon as it has been secured. Seed thus sown 
has strong germinating power. 

On certain soils that are springy in character, blue 
grass will come in and take possession, when the forest 
is cut away. These soils are usually composed of muck 
and more commonly they are located at the base of a 
hill, or lie between land that on either side is more or 
less elevated. Seepage waters come into these 
depressions, of course, from subterranean sources, and 
rising from below saturate them to excess at certain sea- 
sons of the year. At other seasons they can be grazed. 
Partly through the action of frost and partly because of 
treading by animals grazing on them, these lands as- 
sume the form of innumerable hillocks resembling ant 
hills. These lands usually furnish a large amount of 
grazing. If, however, the seepage waters coming down 
from the higher land were sufficiently intercepted by a 
drain or drains skirting the same at the base, and run- 
ning parallel to them, the capacity of such grazing lands 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 109 

would be much increased. The surface would also 
gradually assume a level form. 

Blue Grass in La /r//x.— Wherever Kentucky blue 
grass can be grown successfully it is a favorite grass for 
lawns. The dense, fine, almost velvety sward it makes 
pre-eminently fits it for such a use. Its crowding habit 
of growth enables it to keep at bay almost all forms of 
weed life when it has once become set; that is to say, 
well established. Cessation of growth and turning; 
brown for a time in summer when unirrigated, are the 
weakest points in this grass as a lawn grass. 

In making lawns on the farm the ground should be 
first cleaned on the surface, as by summer fallowing for 
the whole or even for a part of the season. It should 
then be well-levelled. The seed ought then to be sown, 
preferably in the early autumn and covered with a rake 
or a light harrow. It may be sown unmixed or mixed 
with white clover, and with or without a nurse crop of 
grain sown thinly, according as conditions may call for 
the same. The nurse crop and weeds if present should 
be cut back occasionally the first season. If the farm 
house lawn can be cut with the field mower much labor is 
saved in keeping it in order. 

In making blue grass lawns in cities substantially the 
same process may be followed, with the difference that 
these being small it may be necessary to do much of the 
labor by hand, and the seed may be sown any time 
between spring and early fall when the ground can be 
watered. It is important with all lawns that the earth 
shall all have evenly settled before the seed is sown, and 
it should be thickly sown to promote quick setting. 



110 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

When a blue grass lawn is well established under 
suitable conditions and with ordinary care, it is there 
to remain. If a more vigorous growth is wanted it may 
be secured by top dressing with farmyard manure or 
with compost well decomposed and preferably applied 
in the autumn. In some instances the dressing should 
be raked off in the spring. Wood ashes and commercial 
fertilizers may also be applied, but these do not afford 
winter protection as does the manure or the compost. If 
commercial fertilizers are applied, those nitrogenous in 
character are to be preferred. 



CHAPTER V. i 

BERMUDA GRASS. 

Bermuda grass {Cynodon dactylon) is also known by 
the names Dog's Tooth grass, Scutch grass, Wire grass, 
Reed's grass, Bahama grass, and Indian Couch grass. In 
Australia it is called Couch grass and in India Darva 
grass. The name Dog's Tooth grass is a literal rendering 
of Cynodon, the first word of the botanical designation. 
The name Bermuda grass has doubtless been applied to 
it from the abundant growth which it makes in the Ber- 
muda islands, although it did not originate in these. Dr. 
Phares says it is the same as Creeping Dog's Tooth grass 
in England, Chiendent in France, and Doob or Durva in 
the East Indies. Some writers claim that it is the Sa- 
cred Durva grass of the Hindoos, celebrated in the sa- 
cred vedas as the shield of India, in the absence of which 
the cattle would perish, but the evidence in support of 
this view is not regarded as entirely satisfactory. 

Bermuda grass is a creeping perennial, the creeping 
stems of which produce nodes or joints at short intervals. 
Each node is capable of producing a new plant, though 
completely separated from all the others. These stems 
have been known to extend 12 to 15 feet in a single sea- 
son under the most favorable conditions for growth. 
When the joints come in contact with the earth, they 
send down fibrous roots into the soil as do the run- 



112 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ners of white clover. It also produces under ground 
stems near the surface to the depth of 4 to 5 inches and 
extending outward several feet. From the overground 
creeping stems are numerous ascending or upright leafy 
branches from 4 to 10 inches in height. Other grasses of 
like appearance have only a single leaf to each joint, 
while this grass has two, three, and even four leaves to 
the joint. From 3 to 5 digitate spikes are borne on each 
stem at the top when it blooms. These are widely 
spreading, often purplish in color and 1 to 2 inches 
long. The leaves are flat, also spread widely and grad- 
ually taper to a slender acute tip. The roots, other than 
the underground root-stalks, are fibrous and feed deeply, 
but the usual depth for ploughing is deeper than the 
root-stalks are wont to go. 

This grass, much written and spoken against, and 
much feared by many planters because of the difficulty 
of eradicating it in cultivated land, is steadily growing 
in favor in the south, and justly so, owing chiefly 
to its great value as a pasture grass under southern con- 
ditions. Lands well laid down to Bermuda grass are in 
many instances considered the most valuable property 
of the southern farmer. It is strictly a summer grass, 
as it grows best when the heat is greatest, the other 
conditions being right. It starts late in the spring, grows 
sloAvly at first and turns brown with the earliest frosts 
of autumn, but it grows right on through the whole of 
the summer. While it grows best in good soils, no grass 
in the south will furnish so much valuable pasture when 
grown on poor sandy, gullied or worn soils. It has much 
power to withstand heat and drought. Though ap- 



BERMUDA GRASS. 115 

parently dead from drought it will quickly revive when 
moisture comes. It will also withstand inundations 
better probably than any other valuable grass grown in 
the south. 'But it does not succeed well in the shade, 
hence it is not well adapted for being grown in groves 
and while it is becoming "set" it must be protected 
against brome grass and briers. It will not grow in cold 
or even cool weather, nor can it live in a soil deeply 
penetrated by frost. Under favorable conditions it cov- 
ers the soil so densely as to exercise a salutary and con- 
siderable influence on the retention of moisture, and it 
is also favorable to the action of earthworms, so helpful 
to soil improvement. 

This grass is beyond question the most valuable pas- 
lure grass in the south. It will furnish grazing on soils 
too poor to grow cultivated crops, will furnish more 
and better grazing than any other southern grass and 
will also stand closer grazing and more tramping under 
all conditions than any other. All kinds of live stock 
kept upon the southern farm are fond of it, at all stages 
of development until smitten by frost. It also makes 
excellent and valuable hay, more palatable and nutri- 
tious than that made from blue grass. 

Bermuda grass also renders excellent service in pre- 
venting erosion in soils and in binding the same. It 
will hold together the most arid and loose sands when 
once set in them. It has no superior in forming a sod 
on ditch banks and ravines. It is specially helpful in 
filling up gullies little by little, since it grows up 
through the deposit of soil which it arrests from water 
passing through it. It aids in holding up steep banks 



116 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and in preventing land slides, and nothing can surpass 
it for sodding the levees of alluvial lands. It is also 
used as a lawn grass in the south where blue grass will 
not so well serve the purpose. The chief objection to it 
is the brown shade which characterizes it during the sea- 
son of frost. 

One of the chief objections to Bermuda grass is the 
difficulty found in eradicating it on good soils. Many 
growers of this grass, however, affirm that they do not 
desire to completely eradicate it where it is grown in 
rotation with other crops, since the residue of the grass 
plants remaining in the soil after other crops have been 
grown in the rotation, makes the re-establishment of 
this grass much easier than it would otherwise be. 

Distribution. — It is thought that Bermuda grass is a 
native of tropical Asia. It is now grown in many trop- 
ical countries. It has been grown to a considerable ex- 
tent in various areas of southern Asia widely distant 
from one another. Howsoever introduced, it has been 
grown in the southern states for fully three quarters of 
a century. Its growth there is said to have been first 
noted by General Bethune, who gave considerable at- 
tention to its distribution in the south. 

In the United States it is grown chiefly south of the 
37th parallel, that is, south of a line running along or 
near the northern limit of the states of North Carolina, 
Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Mexico and Arizona, 
including the southern portion of California. It would 
seem to be grown in every state south of this line and 
eastward from Texas. In these states it is- probably 
destined to become the best pasture grass grown ? and in 



BERMUDA GRASS. 117 

them it is also likely to be much grown for hay. Its 
growth has been much retarded in the cotton growing 
states by the trouble found in completely exterminating 
it in soils much used for growing cotton and corn, but 
now that the fact is becoming recognized that the lands 
well set to Bermuda grass are yielding higher revenues 
than the former, its growth is rapidly extending. It is 
certainly destined to become the leading pasture grass 
in all the states south of the parallel named, in areas 
susceptible of cultivation. 

Bermuda grass has also been grown Avith much success 
in Virginia where the farmers are laying down to this 
grass considerable areas that were formerly devoted to 
wheat culture. In Southern Kentucky, Missouri and 
Kansas, it has been introduced to some extent, but only 
with variable success because of the cold in winter. Even 
in some parts of Tennessee and Oklahoma, winter weath- 
er injures it. It will succeed well in Southern Califor- 
nia, and reasonably well in much of that state, but it is 
not a success in Oregon. North of the states named this 
grass would not seem to have any economic mission be- 
cause of low temperatures. It will live much further 
north, but does not make sufficient growth to enable it to 
compete with grasses better adapted to northern condi- 
tions. 

Bermuda grass has no economic mission whatever for 
Canada. It is doubtful if it would endure the cold win- 
ters in any province of Canada except possibly in Brit- 
ish Columbia and close beside the Pacific. 

Soils. — Bermuda grass will grow and thrive in almost 
any kind of soil, but of course not equally well. It 



118 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

thrives best on rich soils, alluvial in character, such as 
is found in river bottoms and in drained depressions 
into which deposit has been washed from the higher 
lands. It is much better adapted to sandy lands than 
to stiff clays, but in the latter it will grow when once it 
gets a start. It may be made to cover any of the soils 
so depleted in fertility that their cultivation has been 
abandoned, providing other forms of growth, as broom 
sedge and bushes are not allowed to crowd and over- 
shadow the grass while it is becoming set. It may be 
made to bind shifting sands so light that they will blow, 
though of course from the shifting character of these it 
is not easy to get the plants started. It will also tolerate 
considerable alkali in the soil, insomuch that on soils too 
alkaline to grow other grasses, it will yield some profit 
grown as pasture and on subsoils laid bare through the 
removal of the top soils in filling gullies, it will grow, 
providing they are given a light dressing of farmyard 
manure. The service that it may be made to render in 
turning those gullied soils and worn lands into profita- 
ble grazing and in preventing them from washing in the 
future, is, in the aggregate, beyond all computation. 
Place in the Rotation. — Strictly speaking, Bermuda 
grass is not a rotation plant. Because of the difficulty 
found in eradicating this grass and because of its con- 
tinuity in groAvth, its highest use is found in permanent 
pastures. But it can be and is used in rotations. For 
instance, it may be followed by corn, cotton or wheat 
or other grains, growing these in some sort of alternation 
for a limited number of years. Those who grow it 
thus and who wish to lay down these lands to Ber- 



BERMUDA GRASS. 119 

muda grass again, are careful not to carry the extermin- 
ating process too far before this is attempted. The 
roots remaining in the soil will again produce Bermuda 
pastures if properly protected. There is the objection 
to this plan, however, that it does not admit of what may 
be termed clean cultivation. 

Because of the increased crops that have been ob- 
tained after breaking up lands on which Bermuda has 
grown for several years, some have concluded that it is 
a soil enricher. This, however, is not correct in the 
sense intended. If pastured or mown for successive 
years, the land meanwhile receiving no dressing of ferti- 
lizer, in any form, as with timothy in the north, the fer- 
tility content would be lessened in its entirety. The 
better crops which follow this grass are due, therefore, 
to the much humus put into the soil by the grass, in 
other words, to the mechanical and chemical influence 
which it exerts on the soil in its decay, and to the fer- 
tility which is thus made more readily available. 

Preparing the Soil. — When land is to be laid down 
to Bermuda grass, the cleaner and richer it is, and the 
better its mechanical condition, the sooner will a stand 
of the grass be secured, and the greater will be the re- 
turns from it. When planting it on cultivated land, 
therefore, any attention that is judiciously given to the 
cleaning of the land will be time well spent. The con- 
ditions for planting after a well cared for corn, cotton or 
tobacco crop, are very suitable. 

For spring planting the preparation that is given to 
making the land ready for a corn crop is deemed suita- 



120 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ble also for planting Bermuda grass, but such prepara- 
tion should be made early in the season. 

When the crop is planted on rough land possessed 
with sassafras and broom sage, the only preparation 
given is to remove these for a time by cutting and this 
may be absolutely necessary even when judicious grazing 
is possible. The same is also true of stony and rough 
land. Poor land that has been gullied is prepared by 
ploughing, which should be deep rather than shallow, 
by filling the gullies with the scraper and applying a thin 
coating of farmyard manure when the top soil has been 
removed before planting the grass. 

Sowing or Planting. — As the seed of Bermuda grass 
is low in germinating power and as the price is high, 
running all the way from, say 50 cents to $1.00 per 
pound, it is not much sown in the United States. It is 
not only low in germinating power, but the young 
plants from the seed grow so slowly that they are 
much liable to injury from the crowding of weeds, 
unless well cared for. The plan, therefore, of plant- 
ing portions of the roots has come to be generally 
adopted. 

Xevertheless it may be advisable to sow seed on a 
limited area, in order to get a stand of plants to be 
used a.s cuttings in laying down pastures. It should be 
sowed only on clean and good land and while the same is 
moist. It is recommended to sow the seed broadcast and 
to cover it with a rake. A pound of seed should sow 
one-fifth to one-third of an acre. Weeds must be kept 
away from the young plants until they attain some con- 
siderable size. The method of sowing the seed in drills 



BERMUDA GRASS. 121 

would doubtless be preferable. It Avould call for less 
seed and would make it practicable to keep the land 
clear with considerably less labor. Lawns may be thus 
seeded where Bermuda cuttings or sods cannot be ob- 
tained. 

The following are chief among the methods com- 
monly adopted in planting the grass: 

1. Portions of sod are obtained and are cut into 
pieces about 2 inches square with a sharp spade or corn 
knife. Shallow furrows are made both ways in well 
prepared land and the pieces of sod carried in baskets 
or otherwise are placed in the intersections of these. 
The top side of the sod is kept upward. Sometimes 
the earth is adjusted to the pieces with a hoe or they 
are covered lightly with the plough, the land then being 
smoothed with the harrow. 

2. In the fall while breaking the land with a turning 
plough, drop small pieces of sod in ev.ery third furrow 
behind the plough 1 to 2 feet distant, the next furrow 
slice being made to cover these. Then sow rye on the 
land and in the spring graze down by cattle to aid in 
removing the shade from the crop and to firm the land. 
Horses and sheep should not be thus grazed Avhile the 
grass is setting, as they bite off many of the creeping 
stems and thus interfere with the spread of the grass. 

3. In light furrows made between the rows of corn 
when ready to be laid by, drop small pieces of the sod 
1 to 2 feet apart and cover with a small harrow or 
plank leveller, such as may be run between the rows of 
corn. 

4. The plants are dug up and shaken free from earth 



122 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and run through a cutting box, the aim being not to 
make the lengths short, and these are scattered over well 
prepared land and covered with the harrow, followed or 
preceded by the roller as may be advisable under the cir- 
cumstances. It has been recommended to sow it thus 
with oats, but there is the objection that the shade from 
the oats will hinder growth. If the oats are cut for 
hay, however, the injury thus resulting may not be any 
more than from weeds growing amid the plants. 

5. In unprepared land on which broom sage and sas- 
safras may be growing, pieces of sod drawn in a wagon 
may be planted in openings in the ground made with a 
hoe, the earth being adjusted with the foot. These 
openings may run from 3 to 6 feet apart each way. The 
closer they are the more quickly will the grass possess 
the land. Attention must be given at the same time to 
removing the shade of broom sage or sassafras if growing 
there, by grazing or cutting down according to the 
season of the year. This method is adapted to the 
planting o.^ large areas of run down land when it is de- 
sired to change them into Bermuda pastures at a mini- 
mum expenditure of labor. 

6. Small areas are sometimes planted by barefoot 
boys who drop the pieces of sod into the soil when soft 
and push them down into the same with the foot. 

Spring planting should begin as soon as the danger 
from frost is over and may continue on into the sum- 
mer, but early planting is much to be preferred. When 
planting in the autumn it is necessary to cover more 
deeply than when planting in the spring. Planting 
when moisture is absent should be avoided, and fresh 
plants or cuttings only should be used In some in- 



BERMUDA GRASS. 123 

stances cultivation is given to the land for a time be- 
tween the rows of Bermuda sets with a view to clean the 
same. In other instance's pasturing with cattle has the 
same object in view, and in yet other instances the crab 
grass which grows on the land is cut for hay. 

A real difficulty is frequently experienced in trying to 
get Bermuda grass to grow on shifting sands, from the 
very fact that they do shirt. About all that can be 
done probably to prevent this, is to plant the grass at 
those seasons when growth is possible and when high 
winds are less likely to prevail. 

Pasturing. — Bermuda grass is unquestionably the 
best pasture grass in the south, viewed from the stand- 
point of palatability, productiveness and endurance. 
There are reasons for believing that in its proper sphere 
it will produce more grazing and more meat than blue 
grass under the most favored conditions. When well set 
on good land, it has maintained a mature cattle beast 
to each acre and produced more than 200 pounds of 
beef during six months of grazing. Sheep can graze 
upon it from 7 to 9 months in the year according to the 
locality. One explanation of its ability to produce 
these results is found in its power to grow right through 
the summer months. The first frosts, however, injure it 
for grazing, since they turn the leaves brown, and se- 
vere frosts northward from the Gulf of Mexico take 
the succulence out of the stems and leaves. Further 
south the stems remain green all winter and so may be 
made to furnish grazing, but the propriety of grazing 
closely at that season is somewhat doubtful, lest the 
roots should become too much exposed to the frost. The 



124 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

aim should be rather to grow Texas blue grass or some 
other grass to provide winter grazing. 

With many other grasses elose grazing should be 
avoided , but Bermuda should be grazed somewhat close- 
ly during the season of growth, except when it is becom- 
ing established, at which time close grazing would hin- 
der the runners more or less from pushing out and form- 
ing new plants. It should be thus grazed for the reason, 
first, that it is then more palatable ; second, to prevent 
the stems from becoming hard and wiry and so indigesti- 
ble that their nutritive value is much impaired ; and 
third, to keep down briers and weeds that might other- 
wise injure it by their shade. With this object in view, 
it has been recommended to graze sheep on it early in 
the season. When grazed close, no other grass is able 
to dislodge Bermuda grass unless it be carpet grass 
(Paspalum platycaule) found in Louisiana and other 
parts. When the grazing does not keep the grass down, 
the plan of mowing it when necessary in conjunction 
with the pasturing has frequently been advantageously 
adopted. The wiry condition of the stems when too long 
ungrazed has, it is claimed, in some instances, led to loss 
in the animals grazed upon them. 

In seasons of much drought the plants will, on some 
soils, appear to die, but when rain comes they will re- 
vive again with surprising quickness. Overflow during 
the growing season rather encourages the growth of this 
grass, but for a time it usually injures grazing by the 
sediment deposited on it. 

Harvesting jor Hay. — Bermuda grass should be cut 
for hay when the greatest number of stems are in bloom. 



BERMUDA GRASS. 127 

Soon after they have reached that stage the upper por- 
tion dies and the leaves below fall off. The tedder 
should follow when necessary as soon as the crop is 
wilted, to secure evenness in the curing of a grass so 
fine, and as soon as ready, frequently the same day that 
it is mowed, it should be put up into cocks and remain 
in these until cured. In handling the hay, a fork with 
many tines should be used, because of the fineness of 
the hay. 

The number of cuttings in the season will depend 
upon the soil and weather. These run all the way from 
1 to 5 and the yields also vary accordingly. They run 
all the way from half a ton to 2 tons per cutting. The 
hay per season ordinarily runs from 1 to 5 tons. By 
using nitrate of soda 10 tons have been reaped and in 
one instance recorded as many as 13 tons per acre were 
reaped in one year. The more frequent the cuttings, the 
cleaner is the hay likely to be. 

Securing Seed. — Bermuda grass produces little or no 
seeds in the southern states, hence nothing can be said in 
the meantime about growing it for seed in the same. 
The seed in the market is grown in a still warmer cli- 
mate than that of the southern states. Since the grass 
will soon be grown in so many centers that it will not be 
difficult to obtain portions of the sod for planting, the 
question of seed production would not seem to be one 
of great importance in the United States. In view of 
the fact that a stand of the grass can be more quickly 
obtained from root cuttings than from seed, and of 
the further fact that on some soils some difficulty at- 
tends its eradication, it would seem to be on the whole 



128 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

fortunate for southern agriculture that the plants do 
not bear seed freely. 

Renewing.- — Bermuda grass, like quack grass, be- 
comes sod bound after a few seasons of pasturing or 
mowing, hence where practicable it is recommended t,o 
break it up by ploughing and smoothing the ground 
quite soon thereafter with the harrow ; ploughing it thus 
loosens and aerates the soil, breaks up the matted roots 
and brings new life to the plants. The frequency with 
which this ought to be done, the best season for doing it, 
and the exact mode of doing the work will depend upon 
conditions such as relate to climate, soil and the dense- 
ness of the sod. Usually it is recommended thus to 
break up the sod with the plough every 4 or 5 years. 
Northward the work should not be undertaken just on 
the approach of winter, lest too many of the plants 
should perish. Far south it might be desirable to have 
many of them perish to thin them. The depth of the 
ploughing should be gauged by the character of the soil, 
but it ought always to be as deep as experience has 
demonstrated that it can be done with safety to the 
plants. The more dense the sod, the less the danger of 
destroying too many of the plants by deep ploughing 
and harsh treatment. 

But even under conditions where Bermuda grass 
cannot be thus dealt with, it will continue to produce 
well for many years, as has been demonstrated on free 
grazing lands in proximity to the cities. 

The renewal of tin's grass is sometimes effected by 
ploughing the land in September or October and sow- 
ing it with red clover, winter oats or the sand vetch 



BERMUDA GRASS. 129 

(Vicia villosa). These are grazed when ready, but in 
some instances the clover is cut for hay, the Bermuda 
grass furnishing grazing later in the season. 

The grass may also be renewed in a sense by either 
of the following methods: 1. Apply such commercial 
fertilizers as the circumstances may call for. 2. Fatten 
cattle on the pastures, and feed to these more or less of 
such food as corn, cotton seed meal or oilcake while being 
thus grazed. 3. Fatten sheep or lambs on the same, fed 
liberally with grain or oilcake or Avith both. 

Eradicating. — At one time this grass was the dread 
of the planters or of many of them because of the per- 
sistence with which it grows on good soils subjected to 
cultivation. At the present time some persons who 
grow it in the rotation do not try to completely eradi- 
cate it. They believe that the extra cultivation re- 
quired to keep it in check in cultivated crops is more 
than compensated by its influence in binding soils and 
in other respects benefiting them. When Bermuda is 
wanted again, enough plants remain in the soil to quick- 
ly form a sod. The fact remains, however, that clean 
cultivation is preferable to that which is partially clean, 
hence it is well to be able to eradicate the grass should 
this be desired. When such eradication is attempted, 
climate, soil and season materially influence the meth- 
ods to be adopted, and also the results. It is much more 
easily eradicated when the winters are cold, in soils 
that are low in fertility and in summers that are dry. 

The following methods of eradicating this grass will 
prove more or less successful : 1. Plough on the near 
approach of winter and expose the roots. Then grow 
Grasses — 9. 



130 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

two crops of corn or one of corn and one of cotton, to 
which thorough cultivation is given. 2. Sow oats and 
sand vetches together, or clover, in the autumn, and cut 
the same for hay. Follow with cow peas for hay and 
then grow two cultivated crops successively on the land. 
3. Plough shallow in June, turning the furrows edge- 
wise rather than over. Later with a rotary or some 
other harrow, free the roots as far as practicable from 
the earth. Sow cow peas. Follow with oats and vetches, 
cow peas again, and then corn or cotton. 4. In small 
areas swine will virtually dig out this grass. 

Some persons claim that because of the difficulty 
found in eradicating this grass, it should never be sown 
on land that is to be again cultivated. The author does 
not sympathize with that view, as, unlike Johnson grass, 
it can be eradicated without great cost. But the indo- 
lent farmer should never allow it to come into his 
cultivated ground. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ORCHARD GRASS. 

Orchard grass (Dactylus glomerala) is also known 
by the name of Cocksfoot, a name frequently applied to 
it in England from the fanciful resemblance of the clus- 
ters of the panicle to the foot of a cockerel. The stem 
is strong and inclines somewhat to coarseness, unless 
when the plants grow thickly. It usually grows from 
2 to 2^ feet high, but under favorable conditions may 
reach from 4 to 5 feet in height. The leaves are large, 
long and numerous. The panicle is open and spreading 
and from 2 to 6 inches in length. The leaves are a dark 
green in color, but the panicle is frequently tinged with 
violet spikelets. The roots are fibrous, the fibres going 
down deeply into the soil, which gives it considerable 
power to withstand drought. On good soil and suitable, 
the plants have the appearance of much strength and 
vigor. 

Orchard grass is an annual. It is ready for pasturing 
earlier in the spring probably than any other grass of 
much economic importance in the United States, ex- 
cept Russian brome grass. It comes into flower in 
May or June according to the locality, and then quickly 
reaches the mature stage. It continues to grow with 
more or less vigor during much of the summer, and 
again makes an abundant growth in the autumn as soon 



132 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

as the autumn rains fall. The rapidity of the growth 
during spring and fall is very marked on favorable soils, 
hence the abundance of the production furnished by 
this grass. It is reasonably hardy, but will not with- 
stand exposure to extreme conditions as well as blue 
grass or Russian brome grass. 

Orchard grass has the habit of growing in bunches or 
tussocks unless thickly sown, hence the aim should be 
to sow it so thickly as to prevent this when it is grown 
for pasture, otherwise it ought to be grazed so closely 
that these tussocks will not overshadow other grasses that 
may be growing between them to the extent of destroy- 
ing these grasses. It has also much power to grow in 
the shade, as in orchards or parks. In New England 
especially, the practice has been quite common to sow it 
in orchards, hence, probably, the name orchard grass. 

It is an excellent pasture grass when properly man- 
aged, but is not so nutritious or palatable as blue grass, 
although it furnishes more grazing during the season 
and also ranks high for its nutritive qualities. For per- 
manent pastures it is possessed of a high value. Owing to 
its peculiar habit of growing in tussocks and also be- 
cause of the coarseness of the leaves, it is not well adapt- 
ed to the making of lawns. 

It makes good hay when cut and cured at the right 
time, but it has never become so generally popular for 
such a use as timothy, either on the farm or in the mar- 
ket. This is owing, doubtless, to the quickness with 
which the stems become woody if not cut at the right 
time, to its being more difficult to cure, to the less de- 
gree of its palatability and to its greater bulkiness. 




Fig. 6. 

ORCHARD GRASS (Dan >y lis glome rata). 
Oreiron Experiment, Stnd'nn 



ORCHARD GRASS. 135 

Orchard grass is very enduring under favorable con- 
ditions. Meadows composed of this grass have been 
mown for a dozen years and more. Instances are on 
record wherein pastures of orchard grass have endured 
for 40 years. But ordinarily it does not maintain its 
hold upon the ground unimpaired for periods so long. 

Distribution. — Orchard grass is indigenous to Eu- 
rope, and is probably grown in every country of the 
same. It is also groAvn in Northern Africa, certain 
parts of Asia and in many parts of North America. It 
is said that it was introduced into England from Vir- 
ginia in 1764. In Britain it soon became greatly pop- 
ular especially for pasture purposes. 

Orchard grass is best adapted to a temperate climate 
in which the extremes of cold are not excessive. It can- 
not be grown as far north as blue grass or Russian 
brome grass, but is successfully grown further south 
than either of these grasses. Nor can it so well with- 
stand the sweep of cold winds in unsheltered places, 
especially on western prairies. Like nearly all the cul- 
tivated grasses it grows more successfully under moist 
than under dry conditions, and yet it has considerable 
power to grow under conditions somewhat dry when 
once established. In Central and Western Kansas, for 
instance, it will stand more drought than blue grass. 

In the United States orchard grass grows with no 
little satisfaction on suitable soils in nearly all the coun- 
try east of the dry belt, that is to say, east of a line 
running from north to south, say 300 to 400 miles 
west of the Mississippi river. The exceptions are the 
wind swept areas of northwestern prairies, the light 



136 GRASSES A^D HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sandy soils of the Lake Superior region and the soils 
of the southern states that have been much worn. It 
should prove satisfactory in such areas of the lower Mis- 
sissippi basin as contain alluvial soils and more particu- 
larly those that are considerably impregnated with clay. 
The highest centres of adaptation are probably found 
in the states of Indiana, Pennsylvania, Kentucky and 
Tennessee. In New York and the New England states 
it has long stood high in favor with the farmers, also 
in certain parts of Ohio, Virginia, Kansas and some 
other states. It grows well on the moist foothills of 
the western mountain states and even in some of the 
higher valleys, and without irrigation. Prof. H. T. 
French has spoken well of its merits as a pasture grass 
in certain parts of Idaho. West of the Cascade moun- 
tains, except on gravelly soils, it grows with much lux- 
uriance north of San Francisco. The western ranges 
are probably the lowest in adaptation for orchard grass 
of all the areas in the United States. 

In Canada, the highest adaptation for orchard grass 
is found in the deep loam soils of Western Ontario, but 
even in these it is not likely to supersede blue grass for 
pasture or timothy for hay. In Quebec and in all the 
maritime provinces of Canada it grows satisfactorily, the 
soils being right, and along the Pacific it is quite at 
home as far north as Alaska. But it is not likely that 
it will ever prove a decided success on the prairies be- 
tween the Kocky mountains and Lake Superior. 

Soils. — Orchard grass grows best in deep, rich, moist 
clay loam soils, possessed of a sufficiency of lime, but 
it will also do well on sandy loam soils which rest on 



ORCHARD GRASS. 137 

day somewhat dense in texture. Even on clays some- 
what stiff it will give reasonably good returns as hay or 
as pasture. In fact this grass will do well on almost 
any kind of soil that is rich,, well drained and porous. 
On the average prairie soils of the Mississippi basin it 
grows freely, but in the northern portions of the same 
which are much exposed to the sweep of winds in win- 
ter, it does not endure well. Other soils of the prairie 
are so rich as to produce a coarseness of leaf and stem 
that are not desirable, but this may be counteracted to 
some extent by thick sowing. While orchard grass has 
high adaptation for moist soils, it will fail under con- 
ditions of excessive wetness or dryness in the land, 
hence it is ill-adapted to undrained sloughs or to sandy 
soils deficient in moisture. In the gray soils of the 
Rocky mountain valleys it grows luxuriantly under ir- 
rigation. Where the other conditions are suitable and 
the soil is low in fertility, this grass will readily respond 
to the free application of fertilizers. 

Place in the Rotation. — Since orchard grass, like 
blue grass, is relatively better adapted for pasture than 
for hay, it is scarcely possible to assign it a place in a 
fixed rotation. When grown for hay or for the seed, 
the length of the rotation will depend upon the contin- 
uance of the profitable productiveness of the grass. This 
varies much in different localities, but, usually, the 
tendency in the grass to improve for several years after 
it has been sown, has led to the practice of maintaining 
orchard grass meadows and pastures for several suc- 
cessive years. When grown with reel clover for hay, 
the rotation will be shortened or lengthened accordingly 



138 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

as the sod is broken when the red clover ceases to pro- 
duce abundantly, or at a later period. When grown for 
pasture and more especially in permanent pastures, the 
duration of the rotation will of course be largely depend- 
ent upon the duration of the pasturing period. 

It is evident, Therefore, that orchard grass is not well 
adapted to short or to regularly fixed rotations. When 
sown, however, as in the case of timothy, it may best 
follow cultivated crops which have been sown to clean 
the land or after summer fallow when summer fallowing 
is practiced. As with timothy also, it may be best fol- 
lowed by corn or by some small cereal, as oats or flax 
which grow best on soils supplied with vegetable matter 
in an early stage of decay. Potatoes also will grow well 
after this grass. 

Preparing the Soil. — When orchard grass is sown 
along with such cereals as rye, wheat, oats and barley, 
the preparation of the soil best suited to the growth of 
these crops will also be the preparation suitable for or- 
chard grass. It is considered preferable to plough the 
land in the autumn in localities where such a method 
of handling the land is generally advantageous. As 
with other grass seeds a fine tilth is usually preferred, 
but under some conditions, when sown in the fall, it 
would be possible to make the seed bed too fine for the 
best results to follow. For autumn sowing, simply disk- 
ing; the land on some soils will suffice. On other soils it 
would be necessary to stir it more deeply by using the 
plough, and there may be instances in which the sub-soil- 
er may be advantageously used with the plough. Not- 
withstanding, ou other occasions, the grass will groAV if 



ORCHARD GRASS. 139 

sown after harvest on stubble land and without being 
covered with the harrow. When sown in groves or in 
woodland the stand is much more certain if the leaves 
have been previously raked off or burned where they 
may have been lodged. In such situations a stand has 
been secured even when the young plants have been pas- 
tured off from the first. 

Sowing. — Orchard grass is more commonly sown in 
the early spring, but it may also be sown at various 
seasons. As with clover and timothy it is sometimes 
sown on the late spring snows, or on ground honey- 
combed with frost. But sowing is probably more fre- 
quently deferred until the ground is dry enough to admit 
of covering the seed with the harrow. In moist situa- 
tions it may be sown almost any time during the spring 
when • it occupies the land alone. It has also been 
sown in the late summer or the early autumn. But 
it should not be sown late in the autumn lest the young 
plants should perish through the rigors of the winter 
following. 

Whether the seed should be sown alone or with a 
nurse crop, depends in part on conditions as to moisture 
or the opposite, and the quickness with which a strong- 
stand is required. Under conditions of ample moisture, 
it is more common to sow with a nurse crop, but quite 
frequently the other method of sowing is also adopted. 
When it is, it is necessary to keep the weeds well clip- 
ped back lest they should smother the young plants. 
Bye, barley and wheat in both the winter and spring 
varieties are the favorite nurse crops, but it is not infre- 
quently sown also with oats seeded both autumn and 



140 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

spring. When sown with autumn grains it can usually 
be sown earlier in the spring and on a firmer seedbed 
than when sown with the same grains of the spring- 
varieties, hence the yonng plants can better with- 
stand drought, and the shade of the nnrse crop is re- 
moved earlier. When sown with oats the oats should 
be thinly sown and also cut early. 

The seed is more commonly sown by hand than by 
any other method, but it is not improbable that' in some 
soils the plan of mixing and sowing it along with the 
grain when the latter is drilled in would prove satis- 
factory. Much care should be taken to sow the seed 
evenly to avoid any vacancies that will encourage the 
forming of tussocks. 

When the grass is sown alone, many urge sowing not 
less than two bushels of seed per acre, that is about 28 
pounds. But the amount sown varies from 2 bushels 
down to 1 bushel. When sown alone to provide hay, 
not less, probably, than 2 bushels per acre ought to be 
sown to insure a fine growth of stalks and leaves, but, 
when sown to grow seed, the quantity may in some in- 
stances be profitably reduced to 1 bushel, lest the size 
of the. seed heads should be too much reduced by over- 
crowding. When sown along with red clover to provide 
meadow, a method of sowing which is extensively prac- 
ticed and which meets with much favor, some authorities 
advocate adding as much as 12 pounds of red clover 
seed per acre to the 2 bushels of orchard grass seed. 
Others again claim good results from sowing 1 bushel 
of orchard grass and 8 pounds of red clover. A few 
pounds of tall oat grass or of perennial rye grass are 



ORCHARD GRASS. , 141 

sometimes added per acre especially when growing 
meadow. When this is done the amount of orchard 
grass seed is correspondingly reduced. In the south 
orchard grass and red top are frequently sown together 
for pasture. When thus sown, 14 pounds of orchard 
grass and 7 pounds of red top would probably suffice. 
In some instances timothy is added, hut rather with the 
object of covering the ground more perfectly and thus 
increasing the pasture than of making hay. When 
sown in permanent pastures the amount of seed to sow 
will depend upon the character of the pasture but will 
vary all the way from a few pounds up to a bushel ac- 
cording to the conditions. 

Much care should be exercised in purchasing orchard 
grass seed lest it be adulterated with the seeds of one 
or the other of the rye grasses. The author has been 
told by a very competent seedsman who has been 
long prominent in the seed business, that not less than 
four-fifths of the orchard srass seed of commerce is 
much adulterated with the seeds of the afore-mentioned 
grasses. These ^are cheaper and their detection is not 
easy because of their similarity. 

Pasturing. — Since orchard grass comes up early in 
the spring, the pasturing may begin correspondingly 
early. Since also the leaves become a little coarse and 
less tender with advancing age, and since it soon reaches 
that stage where seed stems are thrown up, it is well to 
pasture this grass with reasonable promptness and close- 
ness in the early part of the season. When the season 
advances and becomes more dry as it advances, as is 
very frequently the case, the growth is less vigorous, but 



142 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

as soon as the fall rains come growth begins again and 
is strong and free in proportion as moisture and plant 
food are present in the soil. The growth of orchard 
grass is more prolonged and continuous than that of blue 
grass, and it provides more pasture, but the pasture is 
not equal to blue grass in palatability or in nutritive 
qualities. 

Where the spring grazing is not reasonably close, the 
seed stems formed will not be eaten readily by live stock. 
If left standing they will of course produce seed, which 
tends to lessen production in the pasture. This may be 
avoided as in the case of timothy by running the field 
mower over the field, the cutter bar being raised high. 
Weeds that may be growing in the pasture will thus also 
fall before the mower. 

From Central Indiana southward, orchard grass is 
frequently grazed during much of the winter. This 
may be done in a judicious manner without injury to 
the grass when once it has become well established. It 
may even be pastured with some freedom by horses and 
sheep, when covered to a considerable depth with snow. 
But care must be taken not to pasture it when the ground 
is so soft that the feet of the animals which feed upon 
it will sink into the same, and the more the clay incre- 
ment in the soil, the greater will be the injury that will 
follow such pasturing. ^orth of the latitude named 
this grass is also sometimes pastured in winter, but 
where the cold is severe, much grazing injures the plants 
more or less by removing needed protection. The pala- 
table and nutritive qualities of the grass are also in- 
jured by temperatures low beyond a certaiu degree. 



ORCHARD GRASS. 143 

Pasturing orchard grass the season that it is sown 
should be avoided unless the plants are vigorous and 
the growth luxuriant. But where both the conditions 
named are present, pasturing may follow without hazard 
in the autumn and in mild climates also in the winter. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Since orchard grass quickly 
matures after the heads appear, it should be cut for hay 
with promptness as soon as it comes into flower, or, what 
some consider better, as soon as the flowers have fallen 
in part or in whole. If not cut until a later stage, the 
steins quickly become woody and the hay loses much 
in palatability. For this reason and for the further 
reason that orchard grass matures for hay in a busy 
season, no more of it should be kept for hay than the 
grower can harvest at the proper time. When cut it 
should be cured in the winrow or cock rather than in 
the swath. Complete curing by the last named method 
would also result in a loss in palatability. When cured 
in the cock the natural greenness of the hay is best main- 
tained, but the labor in curing is greater than when 
cured in the winrow. In curing heavy stands of this 
grass the tedder may of course be made to render good 
service. Since orchard grass takes much more injury 
from rain than timothy, every necessary attention should 
be given that will hasten the curing of the hay. Such 
attention is all the more needful because it is generally 
ready to be harvested late in May or early in June, 
when showers are usually not infrequent. 

After the first cutting the grass springs up again with 
much vigor when the conditions for growth are favor- 
able. When it has grown a<iain for several weeks it 



& ^,v*x "&' 



144 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

may be cut a second time for hay or pastured as may 
be desired. If the weather has been so dry that many 
of the heads did not appear with the first cutting, they 
will appear during this second period of growth, hence 
the crop of the second cutting will be much akin in char- 
acter to that of the first cutting. Otherwise it will con- 
sist of "rowen," that is of leaves which have ^rown 
up after the first cutting. The leaves sometimes make 
an inch of growth in a day. A third cutting is occa- 
sionally obtained under conditions that are quite favor- 
able, and in the case of irrigated land rich in character, 
a fourth cutting. The character of the hay of the differ- 
ent cuttings subsequent to the first will be much alike, 
since under normal conditions the plants head out but 
once a year. It may also be added that on unirrigated 
land the rule is to cut but once a year and then to pasture 
subsequently. 

The yield in hay of course varies. From the first cut- 
ting it may be put at about 1J to -1-| tons per acre. 
From three cuttings as much as 4 tons per acre have 
been obtained in one season. On certain soils especially 
those of the eastern and southern states, the growth 
will be greatly stimulated by the application of "suitable 
commercial fertilizers (see p. 16) just after each cut- 
ting of the crop. On irrigated soils the fertilizers ought 
to be applied as soon as the irrigating waters have dis- 
appeared. 

Securing Seed. — When orchard grass is ripe, the 
heads assume a light yellow tint, and the stems turn yel- 
low for some distance below the head. When ripe, the 
harvesting should be dune with much promptness, other- 



ORCHARD GRASS. 145 

wise the seeds will shatter much during the process of 
harvesting. 

Two methods of harvesting have met with more or less 
general favor. By the first, the binder is set high, at 
least a foot from the ground, and is run over the crop. 
The object sought is to secure the stems and heads which 
are bound in sheaves in order that the parts beneath 
the cut portion may be mowed and made into hay, for 
which it is fairly well adapted, because of the abundance 
of the leaves. By the second method the binder is also 
used. The sheaves are carried by the bundle carrier, 
that a number may be dropped off in one place. These 
are set up in round shocks, and the top of the shock 
is bound with a band drawn from one of the sheaves. 
If the weather is good, threshing from the shock is labor- 
saving, and is attended with but little loss of seed, but 
the crop may of course be housed or stacked and 
threshed later. When drawing the sheaves, the wagon 
rack should be covered with a canvas to prevent losing 
the seed that drops from the head, with the same object 
in view the aim should be to lift each round shock entire 
by using a suitable fork. It would also seem to be labor 
saving to harvest the seed with a stripper suitably made. 

The seed may be threshed with a common thresher, 
but special sieves are used. In winnowing the seed spe- 
cial screens are also necessary, and care must be taken in 
handling the same to avoid heating until it is dry. 

The yield per acre varies from 5 to 20 bushels. The 

average yield is probably about 8 or 10 bushels. While 

the weight of the seed varies somewhat, the average 

weight may be put at say 14 pounds to the measured 

Grasses — 10. 



146 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

bushel. The yield of the seed frequently increases from 
year to year for several years, and the stand also thick- 
ens from the shattering out of the seed. Much of the 
home grown seed is now produced in Kentucky, Indiana 
and Idaho. 

Renewing. — Since orchard grass is one of the most 
abiding of grasses on soils which are adapted to it, on 
these it is not difficult to renew it. When not pastured too 
closely, some of the se$d will mature. When this falls, 
young plants spring up and renew the pasture. But 
where this cannot be done, the pasture may be thickened 
especially on favorable soils, by sowing seed in the early 
fall or spring and covering the same with the harrow. 
Under conditions of abundant moisture harrowing may 
not be necessary. The amount of seed to sow will of 
course vary with the needs of the pasture. If the 
weather following such attempts at renewal should prove 
unfavorable, it may be necessary to sow again when 
the opportune season arrives. W T hen the ground is kept 
well covered with plants, the herbage will be finer and 
consequently better than when the plants are fewer 
and the yield in pasture is also greater. On soils 
which are liable to heave, the roller can occasionally be 
used with much advantage, as may be necessary, and 
this is true also of orchard grass kept for meadow or for 
hay. This must be done in the spring when the ground 
is not too moist to poach, nor too dry to prevent the 
proper firming of the plants. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RED; TOP. 

The name Reel Top is applied in a somewhat loose 
sense to many species of grass growing in the North 
temperate zone, all or nearly all of which are character- 
ized by panicles or heads more or less tinged with red- 
dish brown or purple, as they approach the ripening 
period. These belong to the genus Agrostis, of which 
it is said there are about one hundred species. Of these 
the two so-called varieties Agrostis vulgaris and Agros- 
tis Alba, are by far the most useful. These are not 
recognized as being botanically distinct. When grown 
on dry soils the stems are short and the panicles have a 
lighter shade, hence probably the distinction Alba. 

Red Top in the United States is known by many 
names, nearly all of which are more or less sectional. 
These include Herd's grass, Bent grass, Creeping Bent, 
Rhode Island Bent, English Bent, White Bent, Fine 
Bent, Burden's or Borden's grass, Dew grass, Summer 
Dew grass, Eiorin, Finetop and Tall Red Top. Creep- 
ing Bent (Agrostis stolonifera) and Rhode Island Bent 
(Agrostis canina), are considered by some authorities 
as only modifications of the form Agrostis vulgaris 
growing under different soil conditions. Others look 
upon them as varieties or sub-varieties. It may truth- 
fully be said of the entire genus Agrostis, that it passes 



148 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

into forms which have been given specific names ; of 
these names the term Herd's grass has by far the widest 
application. It is the common designation for red top 
in Pennsylvania, and in all or nearly all of the south- 
ern states. The name Herd's grass is thought to have 
been given because of its very general adaptation to 
the needs of the herd. In all or nearly all the northern 
states, it is known only or chiefly by the name of red 
top. In England the term Bent is applied to all, or at 
least to several, of the forms of this grass. 

Red Top is a perennial grass which grows from a few 
inches to five feet in height under varying conditions 
of soil and climate. Bnt the average height is probably 
18 to 20 inches. In the southern states, it grows 
taller than in those north. The stems are erect, slender, 
smooth and round. The linear leaves are probably not 
so numerous as in timothy. The panicle is oblong and 
spreading, and though it varies considerably in color 
under different conditions of growth, the panicle is gen- 
erally characterized by a purple tint which seems to 
deepen with increasing luxuriance in the growth of the 
grass. The roots are more or less creeping and gather 
food near the surface, rather than from the subsoil. 
The form known as Creeping Bent has long, prostrate 
and creeping stems, which take root at every joint. 
This habit of growth gives it much power to grow on 
moist soils, or even on somewhat dry sandy soils where 
other good grasses grow shyly, and eventually to cover 
them with a stiff sod. The form known as Rhode Is- 
land Bent, sometimes called Brown Bent and Dog's 




Fig. 7. 

RED TOP (Agrostis vulgaris). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



RED TOP. 151 

Bent, has fine root leaves and is able to form a close 
turf on soils low in fertility. This grass in one or the 
other of its forms would seem to have greater power to 
grow on a variety of soils than any . other cultivated 
grass. Notwithstanding, it grows better on moist than 
on dry soils, hence the frequency with which it is found 
in sloughs, in ditches and in by-places generally. Be- 
fore the introduction of timothy, it was a chief reliance 
for hay. Since that time, it is grown more for pasture, 
alone or in mixtures where meadows are more or less 
permanent. It starts later in the spring than blue 
grass, grows more slowly and is later coming into flower. 

It is now more highly esteemed as a pasture grass 
than a hay plant, because of its power to endure, and 
because of the degree of its permanency, but in many 
areas it is still considered an important hay plant. Al- 
though quite suitable as pasture or hay for horses, cattle 
and sheep, when the growth of the pasture is well ad- 
vanced, it is not so highly relished by the stock. 
Though some claim it equal to and even superior to 
timothy for hay, the claim will scarcely hold good 
when viewed from the standpoint of palatability or suit- 
ability for marketing. But in nutrition, it is placed 
next to blue grass. 

It is chiefly valuable as a fertilizer because of the 
humus which it puts into the soil when plowed under. 
Because of its permanency it may be made helpful in 
keeping weeds at bay. It may also be made helpful un- 
der some conditions in binding soils that are gullied and 
in helping to fill up the same. (See p. 120.) 

Distributio7i. — Bed Top is indigenous to Europe and 



152 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

also to America. In the cultivated form it was doubt- 
less introduced at first from England. It was called 
English grass by certain of the early writers. But this 
grass is doubtless indigenous to certain low lands in all 
or nearly all the Northern States from New England 
westward to Dakota, more especially Michigan, Wiscon- 
sin and Minnesota, and in some states south from 
there. This fact has been disputed by some botanists, 
but it cannot be successfully gainsaid. In Britain this 
grass does not hold so high a place relatively among 
the economic grasses as in America, and in the Northern 
States it has never held so high a place relatively as in 
those further South. This is probably owing to the 
freer growth of certain other useful grasses in the North, 
as timothy and blue grass. Red Top is very hardy. 
In no part of the United States will it succumb to the 
cold. It is also able to endure in Canada as far north 
as cultivation has been carried. It would also seem 
able to endure more heat than timothy or blue grass. 
It does best under moist conditions and yet it has very 
considerable power to endure drought. 

It would probably be correct to say, that no grass 
in America is possessed of so wide a distribution. It 
will grow in one or the other of its forms in some por- 
tion or portions of almost every state and territory in 
the Union. In the South especially, it has a more gen- 
eral distribution than any other grass. The moist cli- 
mate of that region is favorable to its growth. It grows 
best there in the river bottoms but will also grow high 
up on the sides of the mountains. Notwithstanding the j 
favorable climatic and soil conditions;, in considerable 



RED TOP. 153 

areas of the south and more especially in Kentucky and 
Tennessee, it would doubtless be correct to say, that 
even larger crops can be grown alone or in conjunction 
with other grasses, in certain of the Northern and Mid- 
dle states. These include Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin and Michigan ; especially in the 
slough lands of those states does it grow with much 
luxuriance. In the New England States, considerable 
prominence relatively is given to red top in the valley 
lands. In New Jersey it is a favorite grass. In the 
southwestern states, it does not flourish without irriga- 
tion, iior has it been found to render much service in 
any of the semi-arid country east of the Rocky moun- 
tains. In the irrigated western mountain valleys, hay 
fodder crops that are considered superior are given at- 
tention to the practical exclusion of red top. 

In no part of Canada has much attention been given 
to the cultivation of red top. Notwithstanding, in 
the low lands of Ontario and Quebec, it grows freely and 
on the tide lands of the maritime provinces and British 
Columbia even larger crops may be grown. In many 
parts of Manitoba and the N. W. territories of Canada 
fairly good crops can be grown. It will also grow, but 
more shyly, on the uplands of the maritime provinces, 
because of the want of nutriment in the soil. 

Soils. — No useful grass in America will grow on a 
greater variety of soils and vet some soils have far 
higher adaptation for red top than others. Highest 
in adaptation probably, are the tide lands which border 
Jon the Atlantic and the Pacific. Next in adaptation 
come the slough lands composed largely of humus, or 



154 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

river bottoms, made up of alluvial soils considerably 
tempered with clay. After these would probably come 
the humus soils of the prairie, and the loam soils of 
the same. Then would come clays and after these, 
sandy loams. It will do well in the sandy soils of river 
bottoms when enough moisture is present. While it 
will grow well on certain of the sandstone soils of the 
south, so deficient in lime as not to maintain blue grass 
in good form, it will grow much better on the deep cal- 
careous soils of the same. It is one of the best grasses 
to grow on thin soils, and it will even grow, though in 
a dwarfed form, on poor gravelly soils. Eo other use- 
ful grass would seem so well adapted for being grown 
in wet situations, even in places so moist, as to be sat- 
urated with water for a considerable portion of the late 
autumn and the early spring. It will even stand shal- 
low submergence for several days, when the weather is 
cool; and for a longer period than almost any other 
useful grass, when it is warm. But it does not stand 
drought as well as Russian brome grass or some of the 
wheat grasses. 

Place in the Rotation. — Red Top usually requires 
several years to become "set," that is, to form a sod as 
dense as it can become under the attendant conditions 
of growth, consequently it is not a good rotation plant ; 
and yet it would not be correct to say that there is no 
place for it in rotations. But that place is more on 
uplands than in reclaimed marshes, since in the soils 
of the latter it is more abiding than on uplands. Speak- 
ing in a general way, on these and in fact on all soils, it 
is helpful in bringing humus to them, and, because of 



RED TOP. 155 

this, the mechanical and chemical effects of red top 
sod, especially on worn soils, is very helpful. 

The crops which may best be made to follow red top 
are those which feed ravenously on humus soils, such 
for instance as corn, the non-saccharine sorghums, po- 
tatoes and rape. But certain of the small cereal grains 
may also be thus grown with profit. Legumes should 
only be sown thus when the sod may be so stiff as to 
call for reduction, before growing on the land such crops 
as wheat, oats and barley. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
red top is much the same as that which fits it for re- 
ceiving orchard grass. (See p. 138.) But clean culti- 
vation preceding red top is even more important than 
the same preceding orchard grass, since it takes longer to 
become established. When it is to be sown alone, as 
for the production of seed, it is specially important that 
it should be sown on clean land, that is on land on 
which a cultivated crop has been grown under clean con- 
ditions. In fact such conditions are the most favorable 
to its growth in all soils. But on the galled soils of the 
south it is sometimes sown and top dressed with or 
without manure, according to the degree of the deple- 
tion, in order to cover them with a grass sward, which 
in turn, will form in them the basis of successful crop 
production. 

Sowing. — Both north and south the seed is sown in 
the autumn and in the spring. In the south autumn 
sowing is growing in favor, since a better stand of the 
plants is then more uniformly obtained. When a hay 
crop is wanted the first summer after sowing the seed, or 



156 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

even when grazing is wanted thus soon it ought to be 
sown in the autumn and on clean land. This method 
will also succeed in the north under conditions favora- 
ble to autumn growth, but, since it is seldom sown in the 
north except in conjunction with other grasses, it is 
more common to sow it in the spring. When sown in 
the spring, early sowing is preferable, especially on up- 
lands. On marshy lands, considerably saturated with 
water, and on which it is desired to add red top to the 
grasses that may be already growing there, it is well to 
sow when the frost begins to leave the surface of the 
bare ground. 

The seed is usually sown by hand. Under some con- 
ditions it may be sown mixed with the grain, but, on 
many soils, this method of sowing would bury the seed 
too deeply. By mixing the seed with certain sub- 
stances, as for instance earth, salt, or wheat bran, it 
could be sown with the grain drill, but it is usually 
sown in the chaff. In order to secure a more even dis- 
tribution of the seed, some growers scatter half the seed 
to be sown by going first in one direction and then sowing 
the balance by going again over the land crosswise. 

When wanted for meadow, the seed is frequently sown 
alone without a nurse crop, and, as previously intimated 
in the autumn. When sown in the chaff, it is almost 
invariably sown in the autumn, and in no other way 
can a stand be so certainly secured. The seed is then 
fresh, its germinating power is at the best, and the 
chaff scale aids in keeping the seed in that damp con- 
dition which is favorable to quick and sure germination. 
But it may also be sown in the autumn, along with a 



RED TOP. 157 

nurse crop, as for instance, winter rye, winter wheat or 
winter barley, and in conjunction with timothy. When 
sown in the autumn, a stand is on the whole more as- 
sured than when sown in the spring. In the spring, 
red top may be sown with any of the small cereal 
grains, but when thus sown the aim should be not to 
shade the ground too densely by using a more or less 
reduced quantity of the seed of the nurse crop. When 
sown on galled or impoverished lands, in order to cover 
them with a sod, it is also usually sown alone. 

When sown in combination with other grasses red 
top and timothy make a favorite mixture on soils neither 
high nor very low. On low soils no combination of 
grasses for hay is more popular than red top, timothy 
and alsike clover. These are adapted to the same soils 
and mature about the same time. When sown for pas- 
ture, this grass may be sown alone, but better in com- 
bination with other grasses and with certain of the 
clovers, according to the nature of the conditions of cli- 
mate and soil. 

The extent of the covering required depends largely 
on soil conditions ; sometimes in both fall and spring 
sowing, no covering is required. In other instances, the 
roller will furnish a sufficient covering; usually, how- 
ever, a light harrow furnishes the best covering for the 
seed. 

The amount of seed to sow will vary with the object 
sought in sowing, as in providing hay or pasture, with 
the cleanness of the seed and with the nature of the 
combination with which the seed is sown. When sown 
alone with a view to make pasture quickly, more seed 



158 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

would be required than if sown to provide hay or to fur- 
nish seed. From half a bushel to a bushel of clean seed 
is the amount sown by many growers, but some sow con- 
siderably more, even as much as two bushels. The nor- 
mal standard bushel weighs 14 pounds, but as the seed 
comes into the market, the measured bushel varies from 
an amount considerably below the standard to as high 
as 44 pounds. It is very evident, therefore, that the 
amount of seed to be sown will vary greatly with the 
character of the seed used, a fact that should not be over- 
looked when purchasing seed or when sowing the same. 
When sown in mixtures for hay or for pasture, the 
amounts of seed to use will lessen with the number of 
the varieties sown and with the amounts of seed used 
in these. When clean seed is used, 6 pounds of red top 
and 6 pounds of timothy would suffice per acre. If red 
clover is added, 4 pounds of red top, 4 of timothy and 6 
pounds of common red or mammoth clover would suf- 
fice. When sown with alsike clover and timothy, 3 
pounds of the alsike, 4 pounds of timothy and 4 pounds 
of red top should be enough. 

When sown in mixtures for pasture, orchard grass 
and red top go well together on southern uplands. Four- 
teen pounds of the former and 7 of the latter should 
make a sufficient seeding. In the north on land somewhat 
low, 4 to 5 pounds of clean blue grass seed per acre may 
be profitably added to the mixture of alsike clover, tim- 
othy and red top given above for hay, even though the 
pasturing should not begin until two or three crops of 
hay have been harvested. But red top may usually be 
added with profit to any combination of grasses used 



RED TOP. 159 

north or south in making permanent pastures. Usually 
from 3 to 5 pounds of good clean red top seed should 
be enough to sow per acre in such combinations. It 
should be remembered, however, that the amounts of 
seed named are only approximate estimates, and that it 
may be necessary to vary them to suit varying condi- 
tions. 

In the south red top is sometimes used in making 
lawns. For such a use it has a higher adaptation than 
blue grass. When so used, much of what was said as 
to methods to be followed when sowing blue grass on 
lawns will also apply to red top. 

Pasturing. — Although seldom sown alone in the 
northern states or in Canada to provide pasture, it is a 
chief reliance for such a use in many parts of the 
southern states. It is highly valued there as a pasture 
grass because it is nutritious and fairly well relished by 
stock ; because it will provide much grazing in the year, 
even in addition to a crop of hay ; because it furnishes 
good winter as well as summer grazing ; because it forms 
a good sod that stands grazing well; and because it is, 
for the conditions named, one of the most enduring 
grasses. 

As already intimated, it ranks nearly as high as Ken- 
tucky blue grass in its nutritive properties and, until 
well advanced in growth, it has a fair amount of succu- 
lence. But when it approaches the ripening stage, stock 
do not eat it. Nevertheless, when properly grazed, it 
will furnish good. pasture for all kinds of stock, even for 
dairy cows whose needs call for succulent food much of 
the year. 



160 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Although it is a little slow in starting in the spring 
and after it has been cut for hay, because of continuity 
in the growth, the amount of grazing furnished is rela- 
tively large. Some farmers in the states which circle 
around Kentucky, claim that they get from 5 to 7 
months' pasture from it in addition to a crop of hay. It 
is probable, however, that when thus grazed, the pro- 
duction of both hay and pasture is less than it would 
be if not grazed so much. Unless on soils low and 
quite rich, the best crops of hay will be obtained from 
lands not grazed closely in the autumn. 

In warm spells in winter, it may be grazed in the 
south, at least in many instances, without injury to the 
grasses after it has formed a good sod. When not close- 
ly grazed in summer, the dead grass of that season falls 
down and provides a mulch for the young grass, amid 
which young blades grow up, even in the winter. In the 
spring, such pastures are especially prized for areas that 
are producing lambs. These pastures are so highly use- 
ful to southern farmers, that they study to provide 
them for their live stock. Although red top eventually 
forms a stiff sod, considerable time is necessary before 
this can be secured. Consequently heavy grazing the 
first season after sowing in the spring or even in the 
autumn should be avoided. The variety Agrostis stol- 
onifera forms so stiff a sod even on lands considerably 
saturated with water, that they will not poach when 
grazed by live stock. But even on sterile soils, ordi- 
nary red top will eventually furnish a dense sod. 

All authorities are agreed as to the enduring charac- 
ter of this grass. To southern farmers this is a matter 



RED TOP. 161 

of much moment, since with them blue grass and tim- 
othy are not so valuable relatively, nor are they so en- 
during as in the north. In southern pastures, red top 
will endure where eventually both timothy and blue 
grass will fail. Because of this property, red top 
should be given much prominence in the permanent pas- 
tures of the south. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Before the general introduc- 
tion of timothy, red top was a principal reliance for hay. 
In the southern states, it is still one of the principal hay 
crops, or at least one of the chief factors in the same. 
In the North, it is seldom sown for hay except in mix- 
tures. While some farmers claim that it is superior to 
timothy for hay, timothy is usually, and doubtless with 
good reason, considered superior as a hay plant. It 
weighs more heavily in proportion to the bulk, and in 
the North especially, larger average crops can be ob- 
tained. But red top has the advantage of having small- 
er and softer stems. 

It is ready for being cut when in fullest bloom, or 
at a period somewhat later, especially when it is to be 
fed to horses. If allowed to stand too long, the palata- 
bility will be lessened. It is cut, of course, with the 
field mower. It is more easily cured than many kinds 
of grass. If mown in the afternoon and tedded the 
next morning once or twice, it may then be raked and 
put into cocks. After standing a day or two it is ready 
for being stored. In good weather the curing process 
may be completed in the winrow, which has the advan- 
tage of making it possible to lift it with the hay tedder. 
When cut toward the period of full maturity, it is pos- 
Grasses — 11. 



162 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sible by using the tedder freely to cut in the morning 
after the dew has lifted and to store the same evening. 

The average yields of red top lie between one and 
two tons per acre. On ordinary soils the yield would 
not usually be much more than one ton, and on rich 
low land it would seldom be less than 2 tons. Under 
the most favorable conditions, as much as 4 tons per 
acre have been harvested. In mixtures, as when grown 
with timothy and alsike clover, the average crop would 
probably exceed two tons per acre. 

Securing Seed. — Illinois and New Jersey would seem 
to be the centers of seed production at the present time. 
The crop is ready for being harvested in about 20 days 
from the time when it is in full flower, but this will vary 
with the weather. It should not be left unharvested for 
a very long period after the grain is fully grown within 
the chaff. 

At least three methods of harvesting the seed have 
been adopted. By the first of these it is cut with the 
self -rake reaper, and laid off in loose sheaves. By the 
second it is cut with the binder and the sheaves are stood 
up in long shocks. By the third the seed is secured by 
the aid of the stripper. The first method can be best 
practiced only when the weather is good. It facilitates 
rapid curing. The second method is safer when the 
weather is broken, and it facilitates the easy handling 
of the crop. The stripper may be used in the same way 
as in harvesting the seed of blue grass. The last named 
method is by far the most expeditious of the three, but it 
leaves the straw in the field where it grew. This, how- 
ever, is not a total loss, as when it falls down in the au- 



RED TOP. 163 

tiinm it will serve as a mulch to protect and encourage 
the growth of winter and early spring grazing. 

When the crop is cut with the hinder, which is the 
method usually adopted, it may he threshed at once. 
As it will keep well in the mow or the properly made 
stack, threshing may he deferred when desired until the 
busy season for work is over. In threshing with the 
ordinary threshing machine, the wind must he partly 
shut off, as the seed and chaff are light. Special screens 
must also he used in threshing. When the seed is be- 
ing stripped care must he taken as with bine grass to 
store it in a way that will prevent heating and the loss 
in germinating power that w T ould follow. (See pp. 102 
and 103.) 

Ordinary winnowing mills well equipped with sieves 
and properly run may be used in separating the chaff 
from the seed, but to do this work in the very best 
form and with dispatch, special sieves are desirable. 
For home use, and especially when the seed has been 
stripped, no better plan can be adopted than to sow the 
seed in the chaff. As red top seeds freely, the seed may 
be cheaply secured by the farmer in this way and conse- 
qnently liberal quantities of the seed may be sown. 

The states that are said to furnish red top seed in the 
largest quantities at the present time are those of Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Kentucky and Tennessee. Since how- 
ever this grass is indigenous to the low lands of Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, it would seem probable 
that in time much seed would also be grown in these 
and in some other states. The production of seed may 
be set down at 8 to 20 bushels per acre. 



161 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Renewing. — Since red top is one of the hardiest of 
grasses, and since, under fair treatment, the sod tends 
to improve, renewal, in the sense of obtaining a stand 
and maintaining it, is only necessary when the catch 
is imperfect, or when it is desired to stimulate the 
grass by the application of fertilizers. 

Where the stand of the yonng plants is not sufficiently 
numerous, it may usually be improved by simply adding 
more seed. This may be done in the early autumn, in 
advance of or simultaneously with the coming of the 
first rains, in the late autumn, too late to admit of the 
seed sprouting before the arrival of spring, or in the 
early spring. Whether harrowing is necessary must be 
determined by the circumstances. If the seed is sown 
in the early autumn and especially if fresh seed is 
sown in the chaff, it is usually not greatly important that 
the harrow shall be used. The thickening of the stand 
of seed may also be hastened by allowing the plants pres- 
ent to ripen their seeds and then let the winds strew 
them over the ground. This method will be found quite 
effective especially on moist soils. In this way hillsides 
given to washing with the rains may be clothed after 
scattering plants have obtained a foothold on the same. 

For renewing in the sense of stimulating growth, no 
fertilizer is equal to farmyard manure applied as a top 
dressing, since it acts quickly, its action is prolonged, 
and in addition, for a considerable period it provides a 
mulch for the grass which is helpful to it both summer 
and winter. But commercial fertilizers will also ren- 
der good service. (See p. 17.) 

In some soils with high adaptation to the growth of 



RED TOP. 165 

this grass it will come into land on which it has been 
previously grown without being sown, where cultivat- 
ing to produce crops may have ceased, and will in time 
form pastures as blue grass does. It will also come into 
pastures in which it has not been sown and add to their 
productiveness. And yet its eradication to the extent of 
not being harmful to grain crops is easy. The agress- 
ive power which thus inheres in red top is not equal 
to that of blue grass. 

Binding Soils. — In the southern states especially, 
red top has been found useful in binding soils that 
wash, in making the further gullying of the land to 
cease, and in filling up gullies that have been made. It 
is claimed that for such a use no grass will equal it in 
the South except Bermuda grass. Into the sides of these 
it sends its long rhizomes which produce fresh plants. 
In time they cover the bottom of the gully. The plants 
growing there will catch and hold soil that is being 
carried down by the water. The process is repeated 
from year to year until, in time, much of the depression 
is filled. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

RUSSIAN BEOME GRASS. 

Russian Brome grass (Bro?nus inermis) is also 
known in America by the names Austrian Brome, Hun- 
garian Brome and Awnless Brome, but more common- 
ly it is designated simply Brome grass, or Bromus. The 
name Austrian Brome grass was given to this grass in 
the earlier references made to it in the reports of the 
experimental farms of Canada, where it was first tested 
and from which it was first distributed to any consider- 
able extent in America. It was so given doubtless be- 
cause of the extent to which it has been grown in Aus- 
tria during recent years, and because of the high adapta- 
tion which it has for the light soils of that country. 
Similarly, doubtless, the origin of the name Hungarian 
Brome grass is to be accounted for. The term Awnless 
Brome grass is owing to the absence of awns on the 
panicles. But the name Russian Brome grass would 
seem to be more appropriate because of the longer period 
during which it has been grown in Russia. 

Russian brome grass grows to the average height of 
about 24 inches, but under some conditions it will reach 
the height of fully 5 feet, and under others it will not 
come into head at all. The leaves are medium large 
and the leaf growth is very abundant for a considerable 
distance from the ground. The leaves furnish a dense 




Fig. 8. 

RUSSIAN BROME GRASS (Bromus inermis). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 169 

mass of foliage which completely hides the earth. The 
roots push through the ground like those of quack grass 
{Agvopyrum repens), hence, they soon fill the soil. 
Because of this quality, Russian brome, though it should 
grow but thinly at the first, will soon so possess the soil 
with its roots, that a thick and dense sward will be pro- 
duced. The stems are surmounted by a panicle open 
and spreading and that is usually 4 to 6 inches long, but 
in some instances is considerably longer. 

This grass can endure any amount of cold. It would 
also seem able to stand almost any amount of heat such 
as is experienced in the temperate zone. It is probably 
unequalled by any of the cultivated grasses in its ability 
to grow in light soils and to withstand drought unless 
it be Western Rye grass (Agropyrum tenerum). It 
comes up in the spring earlier than any of the valuable 
grasses. It grows through much of the summer when 
a reasonable amount of moisture is present, and it con- 
tinues to grow until frost somewhat severe causes a ces- 
sation in the same. It comes into head in the month of 
June, in northerly areas, and earlier in those that are 
southerly. In from three to five weeks after it comes 
into head, the seeds are mature. Recent experience in 
growing it at the Indian Head Experiment Farm, Assa., 
Canada, would seem to indicate that it Avill grow well in 
shade. 

Russian brome grass is essentially a pasture grass, 
but it also makes good hay. All kinds of stock are fond 
of it, and no other grass, unless it be orchard grass, will 
furnish grazing for so large a portion of the year. Its 
producing and feeding value for hay is about equal to 



170 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

that of timothy, but the latter is more marketable be- 
cause of its greater weight in proportion to the bulk, and 
it is also preferred in the meantime for feeding horses. 
The greatest weakness of Russian brome grass probably, 
is the tendency which it has to thicken to such an extent 
that growth is checked in consequence. 

Distribution. — Russian brome grass is indigenous to 
Asia and Europe, ranging from the Atlantic to Siberia. 
In Euroj:>e it has been cultivated for more than a century 
and for a long time to a greater extent in Russia than in 
other divisions of that continent. During the last half 
of the nineteenth century, it was introduced into Hun- 
gary and by a long series of experiments its superior 
adaptation for light lands in that country was demon- 
strated, as also its ability to withstand well, long periods 
of drought. In both Europe and Asia it was first grown 
northward rather than southward, and on soils light 
rather than heavy. Since it has been introduced into 
North America it has shown at least equal adaptation 
for like conditions. There is probably no grass among 
the hundreds that have been tried on this continent 
which may be grown successfully over a wider area and 
under a greater variety of conditions. 

Russian brome grass was first introduced into the 
United States in 1882 by the experiment station of Cali- 
fornia. It was first introduced into Canada by Dr. 
William Saunders, director of Experiment Farms in 
that country, in 1886. In experiments conducted with 
it at stations in the various provinces, it was found pre- 
eminently adapted to the conditions of the northwestern 
provinces of that country. The general distribution of 



• RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 171 

seed began there as early as 1890, and was continued for 
a number of years, with the result that it is now quite 
generally grown over the Canadian Northwest. 

While the first introduction of Russian brome grass 
into America is to be credited to California, the fact 
remains, nevertheless, that the first general seed distri- 
bution of the grass over large areas is to be credited to 
Canada. It was in that country that it was first exten- 
sively tried. There also the seed was first grown for the 
seed trade in America, and it was from that country 
the seed merchants of the United States first obtained 
supplies of American grown seed. Moreover, the at- 
tention of the American public was largely drawn to its 
merits through the many references made to it in Cana- 
dian publications. Of all the foreign grasses intro- 
duced into America during recent decades, this grass 
promises to be the most generally useful. Until within 
the past few years nearly all the seed sown has been 
imported from Europe and Asia. But now much seed 
is being grown not only in the Canadian Northwest but 
also in certain of the northwestern states of the Union. 

This grass will grow better where moisture is abun- 
dant and the temperature moderate than under condi- 
tions the opposite ; but it has at the same time, unusual 
power to successfully withstand cold and drought. 
When once established, temperatures, howsoever low, do 
not seem to destroy it. Reference has already been 
made to its g'reat drought resisting qualities, but its 
value as a drought resisting grass lies more in its ability 
to live under dry conditions than to grow under the 
same. It keeps alive under conditions that would de- 



172 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

stroy many other grasses and it will then grow vigor- 
ously when moisture is brought to it. It can be made 
to render excellent service in states where the rainfall 
is not more than 12 to 15 inches. 

There is no state in the Union in which brome grass 
will not grow more or less vigorously, but as with timo- 
thy, it has highest adaptation for the states which lie 
north of the line that marks the northern boundary of 
Tennessee. Owing to its recent introduction it can 
scarcely be said that its distribution in the United States 
has been fully determined, but the reports that come 
from the experiment stations north of this limit named, 
nearly all speak more highly of the results obtained 
from growing it than do the stations located in states 
south of the said line. As in the case of timothy, the 
best crops of this grass can be grown in those states that 
border on the Canadian boundary line, but the centers 
of distribution in this country are more likely to extend 
westward from the Mississippi until the Cascade moun- 
tains are reached, and southward from the said bound- 
ary through two or three tiers of states. In other words 
it will be found in the northerly areas of the semi-arid 
belt, and in areas that border upon the same to the east 
and the west. Its highest utility will probably be found 
in North and South Dakota. But it is likely to render 
much service also to Western Minnesota, Kansas, Ne- 
braska, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Idaho, Washing- 
ton and Oregon, and it may be other states south from 
these. The centers of distribution are likely to cul- 
minate in these states, not because Russian brome grass 
will grow better in them than in states further to the 



RUSSIAN. BROME GRASS. 173 

east, but because it will grow better in them than other 
useful grasses. 

This grass will grow at least fairly well in all the 
provinces of Canada, but the center of distribution is 
likely to be found in the prairie provinces, since in these 
other grasses do not grow so satisfactorily. The best 
crops of this grass, grown on the continent, will probably 
be grown in Manitoba, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and 
Alberta. Much of the upland soil in the Canadian 
maritime provinces bordering on the Atlantic, like the 
soil of New England, is too low in fertility to grow this 
grass in best form without first being enriched. 

Soils. — But few kinds of grass will grow so well on 
so great a variety of soils. The popular idea in Amer- 
ica, at least, is, as previously intimated, that it has spe- 
cial adaptation, for sandy soils, deficient in moisture. 
This view is only partially correct. While it has rela- 
tively high adaptation for these, the richer and the more 
moist the soil, the better will this grass grow in it. The 
best crops of Russian brome grass, therefore, in tillable 
areas, will be obtained from rich alluvial deposits, or 
from valley lands with a deep moist soil and abounding 
in humus. Next in order in adaptation may be placed 
clay loam soils, open in texture and rich in the elements 
of plant food. After these the ordinary soils of the 
prairie so largely made up of vegetable matter; then 
clays ; after clays sandy loams and gravelly loams ; and 
last of all sandy and gravelly soils deficient in loam and 
also in moisture. In the states which include the range 
country, this grass will of course grow at its best in 
the valleys where it can be irrigated, but in many of 



174 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

these it will grow better than almost any other kind 
of grass that has been tried without irrigation. In 
slough lands it grows luxuriantly when these are 
drained, and will live and flourish though covered with 
shallow waters even for weeks in succession while the 
weather is cool, and yet on dry sandy soils, when once 
established, it has great power to maintain its hold. 
The luxuriance with which it arows is greatly influenced 
by moisture. Because of this, the returns in pasture or 
in hay will greatly fluctuate where the weather condi- 
tions are fitful, hence, in certain areas of the range, 
while in some seasons it may not be profitable to mow 
it, in other seasons it may give a bountiful return. 

Place in the Rotation. — Russian brome grass is of so 
recent introduction into this country, that its place in 
the rotation has not yet been very clearly defined in 
the practice of those who have grown it. As it has 
been grown more under conditions where the rainfall is 
light, the inclination has been not to break up the sod 
where it has once been established for a number of 
years. Notably has this been true of the semi-arid coun- 
try in the west, Avhere it has been grown thus far chiefly 
for hay. In such areas it is quite frequently sown on 
the newly broken prairie prepared as for wheat. But in 
time it will probably be found that it will be good prac- 
tice to follow it with some variety of corn adapted to 
the soil and weather conditions where this crop can be 
successfully grown, following the corn with one or more 
grain crops and again sowing with brome grass. The 
number of the crops that should be taken before the 
brome grass is again broken up cannot be stated definite- 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 175 

Iy until experience has thrown more light upon this ques- 
tion, but it will probably be found that it would not 
be advisable to take more than two crops of hay and 
one or two of pasture, before breaking- up the sod. In 
any event, the sod should not be allowed to become so 
tilled with the roots of the grass before this is done as to 
preclude the possibility of making a good seed bed for 
corn or other crops on the overturned sod without too 
great an expenditure of labor. 

In areas where crops of grain are regularly grown, 
and more especially in those in which a regiilar rota- 
tion is attempted, brome grass may come anywhere in 
the rotation, but as with other grasses, a stand is more 
assured on land that is clean. But, if not smothered 
by weeds wdien the plants are young, this grass has more 
power to crowd them out later than most other grasses. 
When once established, if not broken up for a number 
of years, in certain of the prairie soils the roots will fill 
these so completely that when the ground is ploughed 
the furrow slice is a mass of roots so bound together that 
pulverization cannot be secured without great labor. Be- 
cause of this, in such areas, the sod should be ploughed 
before it became so filled with the interlacing roots. 
The number of years required to induce such a condition 
will vary with soils and with the precipitation. Us- 
ually the grass may be cut two seasons and pastured 
one before the sod becomes so stiff as to become thus dif- 
ficult of pulverization. But when it does occur, it is 
probable that rape, or flax, or buckwheat sown on it 
would aid in more quickly reducing the sod. 

In all arable areas deficient in rainfall, where this 



176 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

grass flourishes, it may be turned to excellent account 
in supplying the land with humus. In areas where the 
soils are so light that they lift with the wind, it may 
be made to render valuable service by counteracting this 
evil through the binding influence of the roots. Its value 
for both uses is assuredly very great. Where Russian 
brome grass is grown in such areas, it should therefore 
be followed by such crops as corn or the small cereal 
grains. If the roots are so many that a good seed bed 
for small grain cannot be made without too much labor, 
corn should be the first crop grown, since more time 
would be available in preparing the seed bed, and the 
cultivation following would accelerate decay in the sod, 
which would then be in good condition to receive some 
small cereal grain crop the following year. In areas 
where corn does not grow well or is not needed, winter 
rye will reduce a stiff sod more quickly and effectively 
than the other small cereals. The beneficial effects of 
the decaying sod mechanically and also on the reten- 
tion of moisture would thus be felt for a number of 
years, how many, would depend on the degree of the 
precipitation. It would, at least, be felt long enough 
to influence favorably the growth of two or three crops 
following. 

In the southern states, when Russian brome grass can 
as a rule be sown with much greater advantage in the 
autumn than in the spring, it may be made to. follow 
any crop of the season that has been removed sufficient- 
ly early to admit of properly preparing the ground. It 
may therefore follow with much propriety any kind of 
winter cereal as wheat, rye, oats or ba'rley, grown alone 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 177 

or in combinations for the grain or for pasture ; it may 
in turn be followed by any crop which is greatly benefit- 
ed by an abundance of humus in the soil. The roots of the 
grass are less likely to possess the soil so completely in 
the South, because of the less fertility which in many 
places, southern soils possess. Decay in the overturned 
sod is much quicker, hence the roots are not so likely to 
possess the soil to the extent of frustrating the effort to 
grow a crop successfully upon them the same season that 
they are broken. 

Preparing the Soil. — The most important requisite 
in preparing the ground for Russian brome grass would 
seem to be cleanliness. As the young plants grow slow- 
ly the first season, if not sown on land that is reasonably 
clean, the danger is imminent that weeds will over- 
shadow the young plants to their injury, if not to their 
destruction. It may, therefore, be sown with advan- 
tage after a crop that has been cultivated, as corn, for 
instance, or on ground that has been summer fallowed 
during a part of the season or the whole of the same. 
In northerly latitudes and on prairie soils, the plan 
has proved satisfactory which ploughs the land the previ- 
ous autumn and then uses upon it occasionally the har- 
row or cultivator or both, until the seed is sown. In 
this way the ground may be cleaned sufficiently to admit 
of sowing the grass in June, but it is more common on 
land prepared thus to sow the seed from August onward 
according to the climatic conditions. 

When this grass is sown along with a crop of grain, 
the preparation of the soil that is best suited to the needs 
of the grain will also be that best suited to the needs of 
Grasses — 12. 



178 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the grass. This means that as a rule the pulverization 
should be fine; but in certain soils and under certain 
climatic conditions, it is not desirable to have the ground 
pulverized very finely when the seed is sown in the 
fall. This is true of clays north or south. On soils 
that drift it is better to sow on a rough surface if the 
seed is to be covered with the harrow to bury it more 
deeply and also to have it rough to prevent blowing. 
When the seed is sown just before the advent of winter, 
which, in northerly latitudes would seem to be a good 
season for sowing, under certain conditions it has been 
recommended to sow on land ploughed but harrowed only 
slightly or not at all. When thus sown the ground may 
be smoothed with the harrow, when the plants have be- 
come so firmly rooted that the harrow will not pull them 
out. 

When sowing Russian brome grass on the open range, 
for the purpose of supplanting the grasses which may 
grow there, the land is first disked in some instances, 
especially when the sod is at all dense. In other in- 
stances, where the native grass plants do not completely 
cover the ground, the seed is sown without any prepara- 
tion having been given to the land. It is not certain, 
however, that the best method or methods of thus super- 
seding the grasses of the prairie have yet been ascer- 
tained. 

Deep ploughing has been recommended in certain 
areas, when preparing the land; but ordinarily this would 
not seem to be necessary, unless where such tillage was 
practiced to insure soil moisture. The roots of Russian 
brome grass have much power to push through the soil 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 179 

and also down into it, hence, on the average prairie soil, 
such deep tillage would not seem to be specially neces- 
sary, if necessary at all, in preparing the land for this 
grass. 

Sowing. — Under some conditions Russian brome 
grass may be sown during any month of the season of 
growth. Under average conditions, however, the favor- 
ite season for sowing is the early spring, especially 
Avhen sown with a nurse crop. But, in the northwestern 
provinces of Canada, it is frequently sown in June. It 
is also frequently sown in August or September, on land 
that has been summer fallowed. There is usually enough 
rainfall in these months, especially in June, to sprout the 
seed. It also grows on clean land and makes a crop the 
following season. In the southern states, when sown in 
the autumn, a good stand is more assured than when 
sown in the spring, but to this there may be some excep- 
tions. When sown thus, the plants grow during much of 
the winter ; whereas, if sown in the spring, hot and dry 
weather following might prove fatal to the seed. In 
areas with low winter temperature, and a small amount 
of precipitation, many growers prefer sowing the seed in 
the autumn. It is then ready to grow in the early 
spring, and thus get the full benefit of all the moisture 
that comes at that season ; when sown in the late autumn 
a full crop cannot be made the following season ; when 
sown alone in the upper Mississippi basin, early in June, 
would be a good time to sow the seed on suitably pre- 
pared land, as by that time many of the weed seeds in 
the surface soil would have germinated and been de- 
stroyed. But when thus v sown it would be necessary in 



180 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

some instances to run the mower over the ground once 
or oftener the same season to keep weeds from maturing 
seed. 

The seed has more commonly been sown by hand 
than by any other method. It does not feed well into 
the ordinary drill tubes alone or mixed with grain unless 
perfectly clean, owing to the chaffy character of the 
seed. But it would seem probable that the seed could be 
sown with the drill by mixing it with some heavy sub- 
stance as earth. It would also seem probable that some 
form of hand machine would be introduced in the near 
future that would do this work satisfactorily. Sowing 
the seed by hand is slow and tedious. Owing to the 
lightness of the seed, only a narrow cast is made and it 
can only be sown in a still time. There is the further 
objection that the seed will fall unevenly, unless when 
sown by a skilled sower. 

Opinions differ widely as to whether Russian brome 
grass ought to be sown alone or with a nurse erop. This 
question is much affected by locality and the season at 
which a crop is sown. Where the rainfall is sufficient, 
and when the seed is sown in the early spring, ordi- 
narily it ought to be sown with a nurse crop, as if sown 
alone, Aveeds will probably shade the grass as much or 
more than a nurse crop would, unless cut back with the 
mower. In the North, winter rye, winter wheat, where 
it can be grown, or any of the small spring cereals, as 
wheat, oats, barley or even flax, are suitable nurse 
crops. The least suitable is oats, because of the leafy 
character of the growth, and yet oats make a very suita- 
ble nurse crop if sown quite thinly and cut for hay while 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 181 

yet immature. In the southern states, any of the winter 
cereals will answer as well as nurse crops. When the 
rainfall is short and when the seed is sown later than 
the early spring, it is more commonly grown alone so 
that the young plants may have the full benefit of all the 
moisture in the soil. The plants are delicate when 
young, in the sense that they grow slowly, and that then 
they are easily destroyed by dense shade. This fact 
should never be lost sight of when sowing Russian 
brome grass, and the amount of seed sown in providing 
the nurse crop should be regulated accordingly. The 
harrow is generally used in covering the seed. A mod- 
erate covering is preferred in moist climates, but in dry 
areas and light soils the covering should be deeper, espe- 
cially when the seed is sown in the spring. 

The amount of seed that ought to be sown will vary 
with the object sought from sowing it, and also with 
soil conditions. When wanted for pasture, as quickly 
as the same can be provided in good form, more seed is 
required than when hay is sought ; and on soils low in 
fertility more seed ought to be sown than when the con- 
ditions are the opposite. Some authorities recommend 
sowing as much as 30 pounds of seed per acre, a seeding 
that would certainly be excessive. A sufficient stand 
has been obtained from sowing as small a quantity as 3 
pounds per acre, but not until the second year after 
sowing the seed. As the tendency is ever present with 
Russian brome grass to thicken from season to season, if 
the plants grow too thickly at the first, the yield of seed 
is lessened even the first season, and subsequently the 
yield in hay and pasture will be less also than if the 



182 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

plants were more numerous. When seed is wanted the 
season after sowing, 1 to 12 pounds per acre should 
suffice on average soils. To produce hay the year after 
sowing the seed, from 12 to 15 pounds should be enough, 
and for pasture 15 to 18 pounds. When sown in com- 
bination with other grasses, the quantity may be made to 
vary from 2 to 3 pounds, upwards, according to the ob- 
ject sought. 

But little is yet known, based on American experi- 
ence, as to the value of Russian brome grass for growing 
in mixtures to make permanent pasture. Since it is 
aggressive, it may be expected ultimately to crowd out 
nearly all other kinds of grasses. Kentucky blue grass 
is probably the only highly valuable pasture grass that 
would not ultimately be entirely dispossessed by it, and 
in northerly areas where the conditions are highly favor- 
able to the growth of the Russian brome, even blue 
grass may not be able to withstand its encroachments. 
In Hungary it is sometimes grown along with alfalfa 
and some Montana experience has also proved reason- 
ably successful in growing it thus. In Manitoba, how- 
ever, it has been grown successfully with timothy in such 
rotations sowing about 6 pounds of each per acre. 

Because of the slow growth of Russian brome grass 
when it is young, when it has been sown with a nurse 
crop, the stand secured may appear feeble in the autumn 
after the grain has been harvested. The heavier that 
flu; growth of the grain has been and the drier the 
autumn, the more feeble will the grass appear. Be- 
cause of this, the temptation sometimes arises to break 
up the field, under the impression that the stand of 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 183 

grass is not worth saving. This should not be done 
hastily or without the most careful examination, as, if 
the plants are present in reasonable numbers, even 
though small, the return the next year may prove quite 
satisfactory. 

Pasturing. — The value of Russian brome grass for 
pasture will depend in a great measure, on the favorable 
or unfavorable character of the conditions for growing 
the grass. On northwestern prairies, it will furnish 
much more grazing relatively than the native grasses of 
the prairie, and probably more than any of the other 
cultivated varieties. In southern areas it would seem 
to be less valuable relatively, but in these its relative 
adaptation for pasture has not been generally proved. 
It is probable, however, that in these it will lose its suc- 
culence in prolonged periods of dry and hot weather, as 
it does on certain of the western ranges until awakened 
by the autumn rains. 

This grass will stand close grazing bettor than many 
other grasses, because of its inherent vigor, and the 
character of the root growth, but, as with these, it will 
yield much more pasture Avhcn it is not closely grazed. 
In some instances, especially on sandy land, it has been 
known to receive serious injury through excessive pas- 
turing, and more especially when grazed thus the same 
year that the seed was sown. Ordinarily, however, it 
has much power to stand close grazing without suc- 
cumbing. The aftermath in meadows is also much 
more abundant than from many other grasses, hence it 
is common to graze it down, but, when thus grazed, the 
effect will doubtless be to lessen the return from the hay 



184 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

crop the following season. While it will stand severe 
tramping better than many other kinds of grass it should 
not be forgotten that American experience with refer- 
ence to this is as yet but little in evidence. Its greater 
value for pasture compared with range grasses, arises 
not only from the earlier period when it is ready for be- 
ing grazed, the larger return which it produces and the 
excellence of the grazing which it furnishes in the 
autumn, but also from its high palatability. As a pas- 
ture it has probably no superior in its own special do- 
main. 

Harvesting for Hay. — When Eussian brome grass is 
to be made into hay, it may be cut from the stage at 
which it is fully out in head until the blossoms disap- 
pear, according to the use that is to be made of it. As 
in the case of timothy, it is cut at a someAvhat more ma- 
ture stage for horses than for cattle or sheep. If cut 
too soon, the hay will be lacking in body and weight. 
If cut too late it will be woody. But in instances in 
which the seed stalks are not plentiful (see p. 185) the 
injury to the hay from deferred cutting is much less than 
when the opposite is true. A favorite time for cutting 
is when the plants are first coming into bloom. Much of 
what has been said as to the mode of cutting and curing 
timothy (see page 72) will apply also to the cutting and 
curing of Russian brome grass. The hay, wdien prop- 
erly cured, is eaten with a relish and its feeding value 
is much akin to the feeding value of timothy. The 
large amount of leaf growth in it adds much to its pal- 
atability. The hay is usually free from weeds, espe- 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 185 

cially after the first cutting, as there is a tendency in 
this grass to crowd out weeds when once it is established. 

The yields of hay vary exceedingly with variations in 
soils and in seasons. Ordinarily the best yields are ob- 
tained from the first cutting, but sometimes the second 
cutting, that is, the cutting obtained the third summer 
after the sowing of the seed is more productive because 
of the thickening of the grass with age. Usually only 
one cutting is made in a season, but the aftermath is 
generally abundant. After the second cutting, the 
yields of hay usually decrease from the over-thickening 
of the grass. The average crop may be put at about 1^ 
tons per acre, but under favorable conditions it is fully 
2 tons. Four to 5 tons have been cut from an acre and 
again the yield has been as low as -J ton. 

Securing Seed. — Russian brome grass is ready for be- 
ing harvested about three weeks subsequently to the 
stage of full bloom, but this will vary somewhat with the 
weather. The crop is sufficiently mature when the seed 
kernel is full of meat, but the meat in the same is still 
soft and pliable like rubber. The heads have then as- 
sumed that purple glue tinge which indicates ripeness. 
It should be cut with much promptness when mature, as 
the seed when over-ripe shatters easily. 

Different modes of harvesting the seed have been 
recommended. Some advocate cutting the seed crop 
with the binder. It is set so high as to cut and bind 
into sheaves the seed stems that rise above the leaves, 
but without cutting; the leaves which mass so thickly for 
some distance above the ground. The sheaves when cut 
are removed and put up in shocks until dry, but thny 



186 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

may of course be shocked irp in the same field. The 
residue of the grass uncut is then mowed with the mow- 
er and made into hay. This method may be the best 
to follow when the seed stems rise up thinly, which is 
apt to be the case after the crop has been cut for two or 
three successive seasons. 

A second method cuts the crop and cures it as though 
it were being cured for hay. When thus managed, the 
cutting and handling of the crop when being cured 
should not be done in the driest and hottest part of the 
day, to avoid undue shelling. This method should only 
be resorted to, at least in climates where the harvest 
weather is usually good, when the facilities for harvest- 
ing by one or the other of the methods given are not 
present. 

A third method uses a stripper. This method is prob- 
ably a good one, but it has not as yet been much prac- 
ticed. It should certainly prove an expeditious way of 
getting the seed, as it would preclude the necessity of 
threshing the crop, and there would seem to be no serious 
objections to it. It is probable, however, that as with 
blue grass seed, much care would have to be exercised 
in drying the seed, lest its germinating power should be 
injured through overmuch heating. After the seed had 
been thus removed, the crop would still furnish fairly 
good hay because of the abundance of the foliage below 
the seed heads. 

A fourth method cuts the crop with the binder. The 
sheaves are not tightly bound. They are cured in 
shocks, preferably in those that are long rather than 
round. When dry the crop is threshed at once or is 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 187 

stored away in mows or stacks for being threshed later. 
This method has been found to work well, especially 
with crops in which the seed stems are numerous. 

Russian brome grass may be threshed with the ordi- 
nary threshing machine, but when threshing it, the wind 
has to be nearly or entirely shut off. It is cleaned with 
the ordinary fanning mill, but when cleaning it thus, 
due attention must be given to the amount of wind used 
and to the adjustment of the sieves. 

The yields of the seed vary exceedingly. Usually the 
best yields are obtained from the first cutting, if the 
plants are sufficiently numerous. If not, the best yields 
will probably be obtained from the second cutting, other 
things being equal. Later, the yields will almost cer- 
tainly decrease because of the thickening or matting of 
the grass. The best yields of seed up to the present have 
been secured in the prairie provinces of the Canadian 
Northwest, in North Dakota, in the more northerly of 
the Rocky mountain valleys, and from the bench lands 
of the range states south from the Canadian border. As 
many as 600 pounds of seed have been secured from an 
acre in the areas specified, but 300 to 400 pounds would 
probably be an average from crops of the first cutting. 

The seed of this crop as of all other crops not long 
introduced is high, but it may be obtained by those who 
can afford to wait, without much outlay. If 15 to 20 
pounds of seed are secured and sown on properly pre- 
pared laud, the individual could expect the next year 
to secure, say, 400 pounds of seed from the acre. This 
would sow nearly 27 acres using 15 pounds to the acre. 
The seed crop thus grown could, if necessary, be threshed 



188 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

with a flail, and in many instances at least, the seed 
thus threshed could he sown in the chaff with positive 
advantage, the same season in which it grew. In fact, 
under certain conditions, it could he sown at once. 

Renewing. — If the stand of Russian hrome grass is 
unduly thin at the first, it may be improved by adding 
more seed in the autumn and covering or not covering 
with the harrow acccording as sound judgment may 
dictate. Under some conditions it may be prefer- 
able to add the seed in the spring. But even though 
the stand should be thin, if it is fairly regular it 
will thicken up sufficiently. But its behavior in this 
respect is much influenced by soil and climate. Where 
moisture is deficient, it does not thicken to nearly the 
same extent as under conditions the opposite. 

This grass may be renewed in very many instances by 
simply ploughing it and then smoothing the surface with 
the harrow. The results will be greatly influenced, 
however, by the way in which the work is done. In 
ploughing, the aim should be to cut narrow rather than 
broad furrows and to lay them over at a sharp angle 
rather than flat, and to plough but moderately deep as 
ploughing is done in the locality. The preferable time 
for such ploughing is when the ground is moist. When 
thus treated the grass will start off with renewed vigor. 
How frequently this mode of renewal may be practiced 
and how long it may be expected to prove effective, can- 
not be stated on evidence based on American experi- 
ence, but there would seem to be no good reasons for con- 
cluding that it would not succeed indefinitely or at least 
for a long time. This mode of renewal would seem to 



RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 189 

be well worthy of attention on the part of farmers and 
ranchmen in areas wherein agriculture is more or less 
dependent on the successful growth of this grass. The 
interval between the sowing of the seed and the first re- 
newal by this process and between subsequent renewals 
should be determined by the necessity for the same, as 
evidenced by undue matting of the grass accompanied 
by a deficiency in growth. 

Destroying Russian Brome Grass. — In some localities 
some difficulty has been found in getting rid of this 
grass Avhen meadows or pastures are broken ; especially 
is this true of rich and moist soils. Where this danger 
exists, either of the two following methods will prove 
effective: — First, backset the sod as in breaking up the 
prairie, that is, plough it shallow in June and deeper 
later ; or, second, plough reasonably deep and with care, 
and follow with a well cultivated crop of corn. But it 
would seem to be correct to say that no one who desires 
to sow this excellent grass should be deterred from sow- 
ing it from fear that it would make trouble by persist- 
ently remaining in the soil. 



CHAPTEK IX. 

MEADOW FESCUE. 

The term meadow fescue includes any one of the 
numerous species of grasses of the genus Festuca. The 
varieties of this genus are numerous. The most valua- 
ble of these are Festuca pratensis and Festuca ovina, 
the former being equally valuable for grazing and fod- 
der, and the latter for grazing only. Meadow Fescue 
(Festuca pratensis) sometimes confusingly referred to 
as Festuca etatior and vice versa is also called Tall Fes- 
cue, Tall Meadow Fescue, English Blue grass, Randall 
grass and Evergreen grass. Festuca pratensis and Fes- 
tuca etatior are really tAvo varieties of Fescue. Some 
consider the latter as the species and the former as the 
variety, but Festuca pratensis would seem to be more 
serviceable to American conditions than the other. The 
terms Tall Fescue and Tall Meadow Fescue, are, or 
ought to be, restricted to the variety Festuca etatior. In 
Virginia meadoAV fescue is commonly spoken of as Ran- 
dall grass. In Mississippi, North Carolina and some 
other states it is called Evergreen grass from the green 
color which it maintains even amid the snows of win- 
ter. 

Meadow fescue is a perennial which is somewhat slow 
in coming to maturity. It is by far the most important 
and valuable of the many grasses of the fescue family. 




Fig. 9. 

MEADOW FESCUE (Festuc* pratensis). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



MEADOW FESCUE. 193 

Especially in Europe has it been assigned a prominent 
place in producing live stock, where the fescues are more 
numerous and important than in America. The variety 
prat ens-is grows usually to the height of about 2 feet. 
The stems are round and smooth. The panicle is erect 
and nodding, and somewhat resembles that of chess 
(Bromus saealinus). The leaves are fairly numerous and 
large. The roots are fibrous and go down deeply into 
the soil, in some instances, it is said, as deeply as those 
of clover. Compared with this variety Festuca elatlor 
is considerably larger, taller and coarser, sometimes 
reaching the height of 4 and even 5 feet. The leaves 
are much longer and broader, some of them attaining 
the length of 2 feet. The head is more open and less 
erect, but is more numerously flowered. The roots are 
stronger and more woody, and the plants grow more in 
tufts like those of orchard grass. But since the distri- 
bution of these varieties is about the same and since the 
conditions of growth are very similar, what follows with 
reference to distribution and growth may be considered 
as applying equally to both. 

Meadow fescue grows slowly and takes two or three 
years to attain to a maximum of production. It does 
not grow so early or so quickly in the spring as some 
other grasses, but it continues to grow far on into the 
autumn and in climates sufficiently mild even into the 
winter. It comes into bloom a little earlier than tim- 
othy. Like orchard grass it has considerable adaptation 
for growing in sjiady places. All authorities who have 
written upon it are agreed that it is an excellent pas- 
ture grass, because of its ability to grow during much 
Grasses — 13. 



194 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

of the year, because of its ability to withstand condi- 
tions, wet and dry, warm and cold, because of the con- 
siderable degree of palatability which it possesses and 
because its nutritive properties rank at least fairly 
high. Because of its permanency in conjunction 
with the good qualities named, it should be given 
a foremost place among grasses sown for permanent 
pasture. It ranks high, also, as a hay plant. Amid 
suitable conditions it furnishes a large amount of good 
hay that is much relished by live stock, but when 
grown for hay it is more commonly as a factor in the 
crop than as the sole crop, owing to the considerable 
period which it requires to attain to a maximum of de- 
velopment, it is better adapted to meadows of a con- 
siderable degree of permanency than to those of short 
duration. The variety elatior is less well adapted for 
producing hay because of the coarse character of the 
stems and leaves and of the tendency which it has to 
tussock, but it is thought that it produces more pasture 
than the other variety. 

Meadow fescue is relished by all kinds of domestic 
animals and is very suitable for them. In America, 
however, it is not grown very often alone except for 
seed, hence its productive value for pasture or hay has 
not been so fully 'determined as that of some other 
grasses. From Kentucky and Virginia southward, its 
relative value for winter grazing is even greater than for 
summer grazing owing to the fresh and succulent char- 
acter of the pasture which it furnishes at that season. 

Distribution. — Meadow fescue is indigenous to Eu- 
rope and western Asia,. It is much grown in Great 



MEADOW FESCUE. 195 

Britain, Lapland, Norway and Sweden, and more or 
less of it is grown in all the intervening countries until 
the Mediterranean is reached. It is a favorite meadow 
and pasture grass in the countries specifically designated 
and it is grown to a much greater extent relatively in 
these than in North America. Although introduced 
into America, it is thoroughly at home on this conti- 
nent, and may be grown with more or less success in 
some part or })arts of every state in the Union and of 
every province in Canada. 

That meadow fescue is well adapted to endure low 
temperatures is well attested by the fact that it grows 
so well in Lapland and Norway. That it is well able 
to endure warm climates is witnessed by its behavior in 
the south, for which its adaptation is considered higher 
than for the north. But it should be noticed that its 
highest value in the south is found in cool rather than 
in hot weather. It grows better of course in moist than 
in dry climates and yet it is able to endure much 
drought because of the deep feeding of the roots. 

The ability which this grass has to grow and to 
maintain its greenness when the cold is not too ex- 
treme, is one of its most valuable features. Because of 
this it is especially valuable as a pasture plant for 
autumn and winter grazing in all the southern states 
where it has been grown. Its value for such a use 
has been much praised in Virginia, the Carolinas, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, Mississippi and Kansas. At the agri- 
cultural experiment station at Kansas it has been tested 
for more than twenty years and as a result has been 
assigned a foremost place with orchard grass in adapta- 



196 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

tion for Kansas conditions. Its behavior in furnishing 
hay and pasture has also been favorably reported from 
New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey and 
in several of the 'New England states. It has been 
recommended by high authority as being suitable for 
Indiana, and there would seem to be no good reasons 
why it should not be equally suitable for the conditions 
of the neighboring states. In the states bordering on 
the Mississippi, except in Kentucky and Tennessee, it 
has not been much tested, but it should grow fairly 
well in all of these. In the semi-arid states it should 
stand dry weather better than some other grasses, yet it 
is at least doubtful if it has any important mission 
for these in the purely range country, but where winter 
wheat will grow nicely in these as it does over large 
areas so will meadow fescue. In the more northerly of 
them the conditions would be against winter grazing in 
the lines on which it is conducted in the Atlantic and 
Gulf states. Meadow fescue will doubtless grow well 
in the irrigated valleys, but it is not specially needed 
in these, since they grow alfalfa and clover so well. 
No place probably in the United States or indeed in 
North America has higher adaptation for meadow fescue 
than the strip of coast land along the Pacific from Cal- 
ifornia to Alaska. 

Meadow fescue proved to be one of the most satis- 
factory grasses grown as permanent pasture at the On- 
tario Agricultural College experiment station at Guelph. 
It was not only one of the most abiding but also one of 
the most productive of these, and yet as a pasture or a 
meadow grass it is not much grown on Ontario farms or 



MEADOW FESCUE. 197 

indeed on f&rms in any part of Canada. It is not well 
known in the various provinces of that country, al- 
though it is pretty certain that it could be grown with 
profit in tillable areas from Lake Huron to the Atlantic, 
In the northwestern provinces of Canada, Russian 
brome grass and western rye grass (Agropyrum tene- 
rum) are likely to remain higher in favor than meadow 
fescue. Four reasons may be given why this useful 
grass is not more generally sown — first, the seed is 
relatively high ; second, it is frequently adulterated with 
one of the rye grasses, which it very much resembles ; 
third, its merits are not universally known ; and, fourth, 
it takes so long to reach a maximum of production that 
it is not well suited for being grown in meadows of 
short duration. 

Soils. — Meadow fescue will "row, but of course not 
equally well, in a great variety of soils. Although 
when once established it has much power to maintain its 
hold on soils lacking in moisture during at least a por- 
tion of the year, it will grow much better relatively 
where considerable moisture is present, even where 
the land is annually covered by the overflow of rivers. 
It is best adapted to good, strong, moist loams well 
stocked with the elements of production, and underlaid 
with a subsoil which the roots can easily penetrate to a 
considerable depth. *The best returns have been obtained 
from this plant when grown on such soils in states which 
have a considerable rainfall. On the deposit soils of 
river bottoms it has also proved highly satisfactory 
where the sand element in these has not been too pro- 
nounced. In alluvial bottom lands it grows luxuriantly 



198 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

at present. On sandy loams it grows with no little 
vigor, the growth being modified, of course, by the 
character of these, and the same is true of the humus 
soils of the prairie except where these are too lacking 
in density and moisture. Although sandy, gravelly and 
rocky soils are not high in adaptation for meadow fes- 
cue, it will maintain its hold on these and produce much 
grazing where the moisture is ample as witnessed in 
the good grazing furnished by it on the mountain lands 
of Tennessee. Although this grass grows much better on 
slough or marsh lands that are drained, it will succeed 
in these even when the degree of saturation during a 
portion of the year is considerable. 

Meadow fescue is ill adapted to lands that are low in 
fertility. If these are at the same time leechy, the adap- 
tation even in moist climates is lessened and in dry cli- 
mates it renders growth almost prohibitory. Nor will 
it grow well on good strong soils laden with plant food 
when the rainfall is low beyond a certain degree, as 
witnessed in the semi-arid belt ; yet it will endure more 
drought than timothy, as observed in the relatively bet- 
ter returns obtained from it in Eastern Kansas, Idaho 
and Eastern Washington. 

Place in the Rotation. — Meadow fescue is not well 
adapted to short rotations, since as intimated previously, 
it takes from 2 to 4 years to reach- that point when a 
maximum of production will be realized. When sown 
in meadows it is sown only in those that are to be mown 
for several years in succession before breaking them 
up; and when sown in permanent pastures it ceases 
altogether in the true sense of the term to be a rotation 



MEADOW FESCUE. 199 

plant. In this respect it will occupy about the same 
place as Kentucky blue grass, and much that was said 
about the place which the latter occupies as a rotation 
plant may apply equally to meadow fescue (see page 
89). Like all grass plants, it is best sown on clean 
land, whatever the process may have been that was 
adopted in cleaning the same, and is followed by crops 
that feed eagerly on the gathered supplies of available 
plant food furnished by the grass roots in their decay. 
These include the small cereal grains, corn, the non- 
saccharine sorghums and rape. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
meadow fescue is not different from the preparation of 
the same for several other grasses that are being dis- 
cussed. Usually it requires a seed bed, moist and finely 
pulverized, but there may be instances, as on the light 
soils of the prairie so light that they lift with the wind, 
when a rough surface would be preferable to a smooth 
one. There may be other instances as when the seed is 
sown in the autumn when a surface to some extent 
cloddy would be preferable to the same too finely pul- 
verized ; yet again there are instances as when sown in 
the spring on loam soils in which pulverization cannot 
be too fine for best results. Unless where the soil runs 
together in the sense of impacting or washes away, 
autumn ploughing aids much in securing a fine seed bed 
in the spring. 

Sowing. — The time or times at which meadow fescue 
may be best sown will depend much upon the locality. 
It is hardy, hence at the North the seasons for sowing it 
are about the same as for sowing timothy, that is, during 



200 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

August or Sept .ember, and in the spring from the time 
the ground is uncovered until the small cereal grains 
have been sown. In the South it is usually sown August 
1st to November 1st. As with timothy in the North, 
when sown in the autumn it should be sown early 
enough to secure a good growth in the plants before 
entering the winter. In the North it is more commonly 
sown in the early spring and on ground where it can 
be covered with the harrow. In the South it is oftener 
sown in the fall. 

Like the seeds of nearly all grasses except timothy, 
it is usually sown by hand, but it is practicable under 
certain conditions to sow it with the grain drill and 
with the hand seed sower run like a wheelbarrow when 
sown alone. It may be sown before the grain drill on 
properly prepared land or after it, and in either case the 
harrow should follow to cover the seed unless in climates 
that are quite moist. When sown before the drill a 
more complete covering is secured. 

Because of the slow groAvth made by the young plants, 
it is important that the seed shall be sown with a nurse 
crop, otherwise weeds will have to be mown twice or 
oftener, in the season. Any of the small cereals may 
be used as the nurse crop. Winter rye and winter wheat 
are the most suitable, all things considered, since in 
these it may be sown autumn or spring. In the South 
winter barley is a good nurse crop and winter oats may 
also be used. 

Notwithstanding the value of this grass for meadow 
and for pasture, it cannot be said that it is widely sown 
for either purpose. The relative slowness with which it 



MEADOW FESCUE. 201 

establishes itself probably explains why it is not more 
sown for hay. The great extent to which the seed is 
adulterated by those of the more short lived rye grasses 
probably furnishes one explanation why it is not more 
sown for pasture. For either purpose it is almost in- 
variably sown with other grasses. For meadow the best 
single grass with which to grow it is timothy in the 
North, since the two ripen nearly at the same time. If 
clover is added, alsike is preferable to other varieties, 
since it ripens later than the medium red and does not 
smother the crop with which it grows to the same ex- 
tent as rank mammoth clover does. These three should 
furnish excellent crops of hay on suitable land, although 
the author cannot cite any instances in which they have 
been grown thus. Russian brome grass, orchard grass 
and tall oat grass would not be so suitable to grow along 
with it for meadow; nor would medium red clover, 
since all three mature considerably earlier. 

The important mission of this grass in America 
is in growing pasture in combination with other grass- 
es and more especially in those pastures that are 
abiding. In these it has much power to take care 
of itself, though crowded when once it is established. 
It will be found more valuable relatively in pastures in 
the southern, central and far western states than in 
those north, since for these it seems to have higher 
adaptation than in those 'North, especially in areas with 
Kansas and Idaho as centres. Along with tall oat 
grass and orchard grass it furnishes good pasture not 
temporary in character and the same is true of it in 
certain areas of the South where it fits in particularly 
well with orchard grass in providing such pastures, 



202 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

since both have considerable permanency. The meadow 
fescue readily fills the space between the tussocks of the 
orchard grass. 

When sown alone 2 bushels of seed or 28 pounds is 
about the right quantity to sow per acre on average soils. 
Some recommend a larger amount. When sown with 
timothy for hay 14 pounds of the former and 6 pounds 
of the latter would suffice ; when sown with alsike clover 
and timothy 7, 2 and 4 pounds respectively should make 
a suitable mixture ; when sown for permanent pasture 
the amount of seed will of course vary. If meadow 
fescue and orchard grass are sown together to provide 
such pasture about a bushel of the seed of each should 
be used. If tall oat grass is added, 8 or 9 pounds of each 
of the three should be enough. If sown in mixtures 
with a larger number of grasses it would not seem nec- 
essary to sow more than 5 or 6 pounds of this grass 
per acre, because of its abiding character in permanent 
pastures. 

Pasturing. — Meadow fescue stands grazing well when 
it is once set. It does not furnish grazing so early as 
some of the other good grasses, but it grows better than 
blue grass in the summer and as previously intimated, 
it has much power to grow in cold weather and also to 
retain its genuineness. It grows more or less in Mary- 
land, Virginia, Tennessee and some other states through 
much of the winter ; hence, it furnishes good winter 
grazing for horses, cattle and sheep, but more especially 
for horses and sheep, since these can graze upon it though 
covered with snow, both pawing down to it through 
the snow. It is claimed that it will grow thus on moun- 



MEADOW FESCUE. 203 

tain lands in the South higher than those on which blue 
grass is found. 

For temporary pastures meadow fescue should not 
be looked upon as a reliance, since these would be 
broken up before the grass had reached the limit of 
capacity to produce. But few grasses, however, if in- 
deed any, excel meadow fescue for permanent pasture, 
where the conditions are at all favorable to its growth. 
Its duration under some conditions is very great. One 
instance is on record in Tennessee in which this grass 
has furnished good grazing for 50 years. Whether it 
would endure thus long in northern areas does not ap- 
pear to have been well established. It is probable, how- 
ever, that it Avill survive longer in southern latitudes 
than in those north where the winters are stern. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Meadow fescue comes into 
flower a few days earlier than timothy. It should be 
cut ordinarily about the blossoming stage, but not quite 
so early for horses as for cattle and sheep. The method 
of cutting and curing is about the same as that adopted 
in cutting and curing timothy, that is, it is cut with 
the mower and is cured in the winrow. ( See p. 74. ) It 
makes a good quality of hay. The yield of hay ordinar- 
ily runs from 1 to 2 tons per acre, but in some areas it 
produces much larger yields. As high as 4 tons have 
been cut per acre. Since it is seldom grown alone for 
hay, its value for market purposes does not appear to be 
well established in this country, but, since it weighs 
reasonably well, it should prove at least a fair merchant- 
able hay. When the seed can be obtained plentifully 
at lower rates and in purer form, and when the value of 



204 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

this grass for permanent meadows becomes better known 
more of it will be sown. 

Securing Seed. — Meadow fescue produces seed abun- 
dantly. The chief centres of seed production at the pres- 
ent time in the United States are Northeastern Kansas 
and Idaho. It is also grown in certain areas in Missou- 
ri and Nebraska, but not so extensively as in the areas 
named. One seed firm at Lawrence, Kansas, handled 
50 car loads of home grown seed in 1902. The yields 
in the localities named average about 200 pounds per 
acre, but in some instances they run from 300 to 400 
pounds. The first two or three seed crops are the most 
productive, but where the weeds and other grasses are 
kept out seed crops that should be remunerative may 
be taken for a longer period. The quality of the seed 
grown in these centres is most excellent. It is fortunate 
that the seed supply from the centres named is increas- 
ing. It will, in time, doubtless render it unnecessary to 
import seed, much of which in the past has been so large- 
ly adulterated with the seed of perennial rye grass, 
sometimes to the extent of 75 per cent. The prejudice 
thus begotten against sowing this grass in certain quar- 
ters is unfortunate as it has reacted against its distribu- 
tion. 

Meadow fescue ripens quickly after it comes into 
flower. It should therefore be harvested with prompt- 
ness. There is no better way of harvesting the seed 
crop than by cutting it with the binder and threshing it 
with the ordinary grain thresher. It is not difficult to 
clean the seed with a good fanning mill. 

Renewing. — Information with reference to renewing 



MEADOW FESCUE. 205 

this grass based on American experience is very meagre. 
In meadows it is of less importance than in permanent 
pastures because of the comparative infreqnency of the 
former. In permanent pastures in which it is desired to 
give this grass considerable prominence if the grazing is 
not close the heads which escape the grazing will pro- 
duce seed, which, when it falls down, will in due season 
germinate under many conditions and will in this way 
increase the grass in the pasture. 



CHAPTER X. 

TALL OAT GRASS. 

The term oat grass means any cultivated species of 
Arena. Tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum) is 
the most valuable variety of the oat grass family. It is 
also known by the names Tall Meadow Oat grass, False 
Oat grass, Evergreen grass, Grass of the Andes and 
French Rye grass. It is the Avena Elatior of Linnaeus. 
It inclines to what may be termed the tussock habit of 
growth. Under some conditions it reaches the height 
of 7 feet and under others does not exceed 2 feet. Un- 
der average conditions the height to which the plants 
usually attain is about 3 feet. The foliage is abundant 
but is somewhat coarse. The stems are also more or 
less coarse, which detracts from its value for hay. The 
panicle is long, narrow and nodding, and leans slightly 
to one side. It considerably resembles that of the 
common oat, but is more slender in every way. The 
roots are long and fibrous, going down deeply into the 
soil, but in some instances, as when the soil is not 
suited to the needs of the plants, they become bulbous. 

Tall oat grass is a perennial in its habit of growth and 
somewhat long lived. The seed is large and has strong 
germinating power. The plants grow rapidly in the 
early spring. They furnish much pasture in the north- 
ern states in May, and in the southern states as early 




Fig. 10. 
TALL OAT (JRASS (Arrhenatherum avenaceum). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



TALL OAT GRASS. 209 

as April or even earlier. It is ready for being cut 
for hay at least as early as orchard grass, that is to say 
in June in the northern states and considerably earlier 
in the southern states. After being cut for hay it 
springs up vigorously and makes an abundant aftermath. 
It seeds freely, but ripens the seeds unevenly, and sheds 
them very quickly when ripe. In the North even it will 
make two crops of hay under quite favorable conditions 
and in the South three are frequently obtained. In the 
North from two to three cuttings of greed food may 
readily be obtained from this grass in one season and 
in the South even a larger number are sometimes made. 

When sown in the spring it may frequently be cut for 
hay the same season. In the autumn it again grows 
freely and in the South it keeps green all winter and 
furnishes, according to some authorities, more pasture 
at that season than any other grass. Since the roots go 
down deeply into the soil it stands .drought well, and is 
possessed of considerable power to gather plant food, 
even in poor soils. Moreover it is easier to secure a 
stand of tall oat grass than of almost any other variety 
of cultivated grass. 

The testimony regarding the palatability of the hay 
and pasture furnished by tall oat grass is by no means 
uniform. Some claim that both pasture and hay are 
much relished by farm animals. Others claim that 
they do not take to it readily. Amid this conflict of 
statement it would probably be correct to say that the 
palatability of the pasture or hay does not rank high, 
owing in part to the coarseness of both leaves and stems, 
Grasses — 14. 



210 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

but more to a somewhat bitter taste which characterizes 
it. In nutritive properties it ranks at least medium. 

The contrast is somewhat striking between American 
and English testimony with reference to this grass. The 
former speaks encouragingly as to its value as a culti- 
vated grass. The latter is pretty generally of such a 
character as to discourage its growth, and this in spite 
of the fact that it is extensively grown in France and 
other countries in western Europe. Sir J. B. Laws, 
after discussing it, evidently in an impartial manner, 
concludes that its value is questionable. English opin- 
ion with regard to it would seem to be influenced by the 
large number of the other cultivated grasses which can 
be grown there, some of which are in several respects 
superior to tall oat grass for English conditions. Fur- 
thermore, tall oat grass prefers a climate not too moist. 

Distribution. — Tall oat grass is common in Europe 
and also in western -Asia. It is probably indigenous to 
both of these continents. It was introduced into this 
country from Europe and probably many years ago. It 
has long been grown in Virginia and in certain portions 
of New England it was cultivated to some extent as ear- 
ly as the first quarter of the last century when it was 
valued somewhat highly, more especially because of the 
early and rapid growth which it makes in the spring. 

It is a hardy grass and can endure much heat and 
cold. Its adaptation for southern conditions would 
seem to be much higher than for those in the North, but 
this probably arises more from congeniality in the soil 
conditions than from those of climate. It will grow well 
in a climate that is moist, as is evidenced by its be- 



TALL OAT GRASS. 211 

havior in France, but it grows at its best under condi- 
tions of both climate and soil that are not over moist. 
An over moist climate is also much adverse to the prop- 
er preservation of the hay made from this grass. 

Tall oat grass though riot much grown in the northern 
states, is susceptible of a wide distribution throughout 
the republic. Many good words have been spoken in its 
favor in the South and West, In some of the southern 
states it is placed at the head of the list of the cultivated 
grasses. As previously intimated it has been grown 
successfully for many years in Virginia. In Georgia it 
has been given first place among the valuable grasses. 
In Nebraska, though not very extensively grown, it is in 
good repute and in Idaho it is groAvn considerably both 
on the upland and along with alfalfa on irrigated land. 
Coming northward it has done well on certain of the 
sandy soils of Michigan and in some areas of Pennsyl- 
vania. It is not probable that this grass will be grown 
to a very great extent east of the Rocky mountains and 
north of the fortieth parallel, because of the success 
with which other grasses may be grown in nearly all of 
the area named that are considered superior. Never- 
theless, in the light soils found in certain areas of 
Michigan, Wisconsin and other states, this grass should 
be further tested.- For such soils it has this advantage 
over Russian brome grass, that it germinates more 
quickly and will produce much more abundantly the 
season that it is sown. In the semi-arid belt it will stow 
better than almost any other variety, unless it be the 
Russian brome, but in much of this area the conditions 
are too dry even for tall oat grass. In nearly all the 



212 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

southern states it grows more readily probably than 
any cultivated grass that does not make trouble by 
persistently remaining in the soil. The food produced 
by it in the South is usually much more than from an 
equal area in the North. In the southwestern states 
it can be grown in but few localities without irrigation 
because of drought. But it would seem to have consid- 
erable adaptation for the dry portions of certain of the 
northern mountain states, as Washington, Idaho and 
Oregon. But even in these it is not likely to be so much 
grown as meadow fescue, because of some superior qual- 
ities possessed by the latter. 

In Canada there would seem to be no very large place 
for tall oat grass. In the provinces from Lake Huron 
eastward, other grasses with superior qualities grow so 
well that the necessity for it is not felt, although it 
could be grown successfully in parts of all of these 
provinces. In the provinces west from Lake Superior 
it would seem that it has not been much tested, but it is 
not likely that in these it will supplant Russian brome 
grass, the qualities of which are in some respects su- 
perior. More especially is this true of the latter with 
respect to palat ability, permanency, and the extent to 
which it fills the soil with vegetable matter. 

Soils. — Tall oat grass, though more indifferent to 
soils than some other grasses, will nevertheless grow 
much better on some soils than others. The soils best 
adapted to growing it are those that are somewhat 
dry, porous and sandy or gravelly in texture. As the 
roots feed deeply, it is important that the subsoil shall 
be porous. Whatsoever the character of the surface 



TALL OAT GRASS. 213 

soil, therefore, this grass ought not to be sown where 
a hard pan subsoil comes up near the surface of the 
ground. The favorite soils for tall oat grass are those 
that are sandy in texture and yet possessed of enough of 
loam to furnish food for free growth in the plants, and 
that are moreover underlaid with a porous subsoil, pref- 
erably clay. It will grow well in the alluvial soils 
of river bottoms when sandy in character and not sur- 
charged with moisture. But it will also grow reason- 
ably well on light sandy soils though underlaid with 
sand or gravel, unless where the conditions are extreme- 
ly dry. It will even grow reasonably well on gravelly 
soils under similar conditions. Its adaptation for the 
soils of the Rocky mountain areas is relatively high as 
it is also for much of the light soil found in the South. 
On the vegetable soils of much of the prairie it also 
behaves well, as shown by experience in growing it in 
Iowa and Kansas, more especially when these are not 
so light as to lift with the wind. Stiff clays are not well 
adapted to the production of this grass, and on slough 
soils several of the cultivated grasses will grow much 
better. Where these are undrained it would not be wise 
to try to grow it on them. Nor does it grow well on soils 
otherwise favorable to its development when unduly sat- 
urated with water during any considerable portion of 
the year. 

Place in the Rotation. — Since tall oat grass makes a 
strong growth the first season that it is sown, and since 
it has also considerable power to maintain its hold upon 
the soil, it is adapted to both short and long rota- 
tions. It may be sown to provide hay or pasture for 



214 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

but one or two seasons or it may be sown alone or along 
with other grasses to provide pasture that is to endure 
for a number of years. As with all other grasses it is 
best sown on a clean soil, consequently in the rotation 
it should naturally follow crops that have been cultivated 
and kept clean during the season of growth. But since 
it has much power to grow while the plants are yet 
young, it can fight its own battle better than some other 
grasses, should it be necessary to sow it on soil not 
well cleaned. Especially would this be true if the weeds 
in these soils were annuals, as, subsequently to the cut- 
ting of the first crop the oat grass could be so dealt with 
as to prevent these from re-seeding. 

Tall oat grass could be followed by almost any crop 
that would grow in the locality, but it would be prefera- 
ble to follow it with a crop that requires much vegetable 
matter in the soil in an easily accessible form to grow 
it at its best, as corn, the non-saccharine sorghums, po- 
tatoes and certain kinds of garden produce; also the 
small cereals non-leguminous in character. In Britain 
one form of oat grass known as the bulbosum, is difficult 
to get out of the soil when the sod is broken, but no dif- 
ficulty of this nature occurs with tall oat grass. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
tall oat grass is essentially the same as for other grasses 
that have been discussed. North or south, east or west, 
the aim should be to have a clean seed bed. North or 
south, simply cultivating or disking and then harrowing 
the land after a crop that has been cultivated will be a 
sufficient preparation for receiving the seed, whether 
sown fall or spring. When the oat grass is sown at either 



TALL OAT GRASS. 215 

of the seasons just named it will usually be found 
preferable to defer sowing until time has been given for 
the sprouting of many of the weed seeds in the surface 
soil. But sowing should not be too long deferred in 
either case, lest dry weather should destroy the young 
plants in the first instance, and harsh weather should 
do the same in the second. When sown with a nurse 
crop the preparation of soil that is most suitable 
for the nurse crop will also be most suitable for the 
tall oat grass. This will mean that on nearly all soils 
the finer the pulverization for spring sowing the bet- 
ter, but that for autumn sowing it is not always ad- 
vantageous to have a very fine seed bed. Since tall oat 
grass is a large seed and has strong germinating power, 
it will make a stand under conditions that would be 
fatal to some grass plants that are more delicate when 
young, but with this as with all other plants, the labor 
expended in preparing a suitable seed bed will be wisely 
expended. 

Sowing. — Tall oat grass may be sown north, south, 
east or west, in the autumn or the spring. On suitable 
soils it will probably endure the cold of winter as 
well as timothy, when sown in the fall, but when thus 
sown it should be in the early autumn, that the plants 
may be strong before the arrival of winter. Dr. D. L. 
Phares claims that below parallel 30 it may be sown 
with safety from November 1st onward to the middle of 
December. In the South especially, it is usually consid- 
ered preferable to sow after the fall rains begin, more 
particularly September or October. When sown thus 
early, full crops may be reaped the following year. But 



216 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

it may also be sown in March and April and furnish a 
good cutting of fodder the same season. In the North 
the seed will usually be sown the same time as winter 
wheat or rye ; it will usually be sown with one 
or the other of these crops, if sown in the autumn. In 
the spring the seed may be sown at the same time as the 
small cereal grains as a matter of convenience, since 
it will more commonly be sown with these, but it may 
also be sown later if desired. 

Tall oat grass may be sown as already virtually in- 
timated with any of the small cereal grains. But in 
seasons of good growth the oat grass sometimes grows 
so strong as to hinder the yields of the grain. Espe- 
cially is this result likely to follow when it is sown 
with winter wheat. The value of the wheat straw in 
such instances is greatly enhanced, but it may be at too 
much of a sacrifice to the grain. The feeding value of 
the straw of winter rye would thus also be considerably 
enhanced, but it may be at too great a sacrifice of the 
rye. The feeding value of the winter rye straw would 
be considerably increased without so much injury to 
the grain yield as in the case of wheat. When sown 
with winter barley or winter oats, a good fodder crop 
of the two should be produced the following spring. 
It may also be grown in some localities with either of 
the rye grasses. 

This grass is usually sown by hand, more especially 
when sown in the chaff; since the seed is large it is not 
difficult to sow it thus. It should be covered with 
the harrow when thus sown, but it does not require to be 
so deeply covered as grain. Where the seed is clean it 



TALL OAT GRASS. 217 

may be sown along with grain, but to this method of 
sowing there is the objection that frequently it buries 
the seed too deeply. 

For producing hay, tall oat grass may be sown with 
orchard grass and medium red clover, as they are ready 
for cutting about the same time. It is also sometimes 
sown with alfalfa, but when thus sown it is rather to 
lessen the tendency in the alfalfa pasture to produce 
bloat than to increase the yield of the pasture. It may 
of course be sown alone to provide pasture, but is 
usually sown in conjunction with other grasses. It is 
more frequently sown for pastures in permanent mix- 
tures than in any other way. When sown alone, not less 
than two bushels of clean seed, 24 pounds, ought to be 
used, but when grown for seed a somewhat less quantity 
will suffice. In the chaff the quantity ought to be con- 
siderably increased. When sown with orchard grass 
one-half the quantity should suffice; when sown with 
red clover one-third of the amount ; when sown for per- 
manent pasture usually 3 to 5 pounds will suffice but the 
amount of seed required will of course vary with the 
object sought. 

Pasturing. — There is considerable conflict in opinion 
with reference to the value of this grass for pasture. 
English testimony on this point is in the main unfavor- 
able while American testimony is in the main favorable. 
The latter testimony in some instances speaks enthusi- 
astically, probably too much so with reference to its 
value for pasture. The strong points in its favor are, 
its early, quick and continuous growth. A chief weak- 
ness consists in the bitter taste which characterizes it 



218 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and which does to some extent lessen its palatability. If 
sown in the early spring it will produce pasture the same 
season. The aftermath, after cutting it for hay or 
seed is also abundant. Its highest value for pasture, 
however, is found in the South, in some parts of which 
it may be grazed all the winter. Some consider it 
the best pasture grass for winter which grows in the 
South. In the North this grass is not likely to be grown 
to any considerable extent to provide pasture unless in 
permanent pastures, since other pasture grasses grow 
there which are considered superior. Even in perma- 
nent pastures it is not so enduring as some other grasses. 
But in the central states and in some parts of the west 
where it is grown in conjunction with orchard grass 
and some other grasses its value for pasture is rela- 
tively higher. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Tall oat grass is ready for 
being harvested for hay very early in the season. Even 
in Ontario, Canada, it should be cut for hay sometime 
between the middle and end of June. It should be cut 
promptly when the blossoms begin to come out freely, 
as it rushes rapidly to maturity and soon loses much in 
palatability and in relative digestibility. It is of course 
cut with the mower, and may be handled and cured 
much the same as timothy (see page 72). But in cur- 
ing it, every reasonable effort should be made to protect 
it from rain or heavy dews, as it very easily takes injury 
from either of the sources named. It is not difficult to 
cure after it has been cut for seed. A reasonably good 
crop of hay can be obtained from it, even as far south 
as the Ohio river, while, south of that line, it is not un- 



TALL OAT GRASS. 219 

common to cut two crops of hay in one season. The 
yield of hay may be set down as running from 1 to 3 tons 
per acre as the soils vary on which it is grown and 
also as the season admits of cutting one or two crops. 

Testimony regarding its value for hay is conflicting. 
Some growers think well of it. They claim that it is 
more soft and palatable than timothy, for instance. The 
first claim is correct, but because of this it would be less 
valuable for market uses. The second does not general- 
ly hold good, and because of the great promptness nec- 
essary in cutting and curing it the difficulty of curing 
any considerable area of it in best form is greatly en- 
hanced. 

Securing Seed. — Tall oat grass seeds freely. The 
seeds begin to ripen in from six to twelve days from the 
time of blossoming. The length of the interval is much 
influenced by the weather, but it is always short. The 
seeds on the top of the heads begin to ripen first and 
as soon as these show indications of falling off the 
cutting should not be delayed for a single day or a 
considerable proportion of the seed may be lost. The 
delay of only a few days in harvesting has resulted in 
the entire loss of the seed crop. 

From what has been said it will be apparent that not 
only promptness but much care must be exercised in 
harvesting the crop, otherwise much of the seed will be 
lost. One of the best methods of cutting is to set the 
binder high so as to cut off the stems above the mass of 
the lower leaves, and to shock the sheaves thus made in 
long rather than in round shocks, until dry. These 
may then be drawn on racks covered with some kind of 



220 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

cloth or canvas to catch the seed that shells. The seed 
may he threshed with a common threshing machine, but 
certain special attachments to the same facilitate the 
work and prevent the loss of seed. The seed being rela- 
tively large is more easily separated from the chaff by 
winnowing than the seed of certain other grasses. When 
the seed crop is harvested the residue of the crop left un- 
cut may then be cut and made into hay. The seed crop 
may also be harvested by setting the binder so low as to 
cut the entire crop. But to harvest it thus would consid- 
erably prolong the period necessary to cure it sufficient- 
ly for threshing, which would probably result in the loss 
of much seed, and the labor of threshing would also 
be considerably increased. The seed weighs 12 pounds 
to the bushel. The yield runs from 10 to 20 bushels per 
acre. Certain of the lands in the Palouse country in 
Washington now furnish seed of an excellent quality. 

Renewing. — American experience in the renewal of 
this grass either in pastures or for meadows is not plen- 
tiful. The very meagre records, however, which bear 
upon this question show that it responds readily to top 
dressings with farmyard manure. Reasoning from gen- 
eral principles, it would seem to be easy of renewal on 
congenial soils, since it readily produces seed. The seed 
sheds easily and the germinating power of the seed is 
good. Where the stand for meadow or pasture has 
become too thin, therefore, it would seem reasonable to 
suppose that, adding more seed, fall or spring, but more 
particularly in the early fall, and covering the same 
by plentiful harrowing would produce renewal in the 
crop. In some situations also where the soil and cli- 



TALL OAT GRASS. 221 

matic conditions are both highly favorable, renewal may 
possibly be brought about by grazing in a way that will 
admit of the falling of seed on the ground where it has 
matured. In permanent pastures mixed in character, 
and in which some of the other £>rasses are more a^erres- 
sive, it would not be easily possible to renew tall oat 
grass. 



CHAPTER XI. 

MEADOW FOXTAIL. 

Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) is a grass 
plant that has attained much popularity in England and 
also in some other parts of the continent of Europe. In 
appearance it bears no little resemblance to timothy, but 
the leaves are shorter and the heads also are shorter, 
broader, softer and more velvety. The whole plant is 
more smooth and soft than timothy. Moreover it is 
ready for being grazed much earlier than timothy. It 
also comes into flower several weeks earlier than that 
plant. 

This perennial grass in its habit of growth is consid- 
erably like timothy. The plants grow singly and dis- 
tinct and when not too crowded each throws up several 
spikes, but when overcrowded many of the plants will 
not come into head at all. While the height attained va- 
ries much, the average height may be put at from 18 to 
24 inches, but in rich situations the steins may attain 
the height of 3 feet. The leaves are quite numerous and 
the spikes are from 2 to 4 inches long and about one- 
fourth of an inch in diameter. The root is short and 
creeping, but it has considerable power to retain its 
hold upon the soil. It grows very quickly, especially 
early in the season, and is one of the first grasses to 
furnish pasture. At the Ontario Agricultural College 






\ \\\ 







Fig. 11. 
MEADOW FOXTAIL {Alopecurus pratensis). 

U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Wash\ngton, D. C. 



MEADOW FOXTAIL. 225 

experiment station the heads appeared in some seasons 
before the end of May, or earlier than those of bine 
grass. In Tennessee they sometimes appear early in 
April. In favorable situations it grows np quickly 
again after being grazed and also after being sown for 
hay, but in somewhat dry conditions as in some parts of 
the Mississippi basin it behaves differently. 

Meadow foxtail is much relished by all kinds of 
stock, whether grazed or fed as hay. It is not only pal- 
atable, but its abundant leaf growth and softness make 
it grateful to animals which feed upon it. But it is 
slow to become established, hence it is not well adapted 
for short rotations. It will rather be grown in pastures 
and meadows more or less permanent in character. 
Where the conditions are just right for its growth, it 
is peculiarly well adapted for permanent pasture. 

Distribution. — Meadow foxtail is a native of Europe. 
It has higher adaptation, however, for those parts of 
that continent in which the climate resembles that of 
England. Authorities agree as to its high value for per- 
manent grazing in Britain, where it forms one of the 
principal grasses in such pastures. It has long been in 
favor in that country. In 1824 Sinclair states that it 
constituted part of the produce of all the richest pas- 
tures that had come under his notice in Lincolnshire, 
Devonshire and in the vale of Aylesbury. It also grows 
in western Asia and northern Africa. It is not indigen- 
ous to America, nor can it be said that it has obtained 
a very extensive foothold in any part of the same. 

While this plant is fairly hardy it is not well adapted 
to extreme conditions of heat or cold, drought or exces- 
Grasses — 15. 



226 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sive wet. It grows best in a climate moist and cool, 
moister than much of the climate of the Mississippi 
basin and cooler than that of the southern and south- 
western states, unless in such portions of the same as 
are elevated. It is also a grass that succeeds well under 
irrigation, hence there may yet be a place for it in the 
mountains of the West, although from the nature of the 
production there that place is likely to be limited. 

This grass has been grown more or less in the New 
England states and those adjacent and its adaptation for 
these has been commended. Notwithstanding it has 
been but little grown in a large way. The inference 
would seem just, therefore, that it is not more extensive- 
ly grown for the reason that some other grasses, notably 
blue grass, has been found better adapted to the condi- 
tions in these states. The assumption will also proba- 
bly be found correct that in the elevated areas of the 
Allegheny mountain region southward from New Eng- 
land it may be made to render good service in perma- 
nent pastures. West of the Cascade mountains it should 
also grow well in Washington and Oregon. In other 
parts of the United States the conditions would seem 
to be of a character not highly favorable to the growth 
of this grass. 

In Canada it is not likely to come into much promi- 
nence. It will grow reasonably well in Ontario and the 
provinces eastward, but not sufficiently well, apparently, 
to make it prominent among economic pasture grasses. 
At the Ontario experiment station at Guelph it proved 
considerably less satisfactory in permanent pasture than 
meadow fescue and tall oat grass. It is not likely to 



MEADOW FOXTAIL. 227 

have any important mission in Manitoba and the conn- 
try westward to the Rocky mountains, but it may yet 
render substantial service in certain parts of British 
Columbia. 

Soils. — All authorities agree in representing that 
meadow foxtail will thrive best on a rich, moist, deep, 
strong soil, with an underlying subsoil porous and yet 
moist. It will probably grow best on rich, calcareous 
loams and rich sands when thus underlaid. Richness 
and moistness are important essentials in the soils in 
which it grows, and linked with these there should be 
more or less of friability. In Britain it has given good 
results on land more or less springy at certain seasons. 
It has high adaptation for rich porous soils that can be 
subjected to irrigation. It has been claimed that it 
will grow on any soil except the driest sands and gravels, 
but the claim does not hold good except where moisture 
is abundant as in the climate of Great Britain. In the 
Mississippi basin its growth is not altogether satisfac- 
tory on the loose soils of the prairie, though these 
should abound in the elements most essential to plant 
growth. On sands and gravels in the dry portions of 
the West it would probably not succeed at all, until the 
irrigated mountain valleys are reached. Even in Brit- 
ain it does not well maintain itself on soils dry beyond a 
certain degree. 

Place in the Rotation. — Since meadow foxtail is slow 
in becoming established, and since it has the power to 
maintain itself for many years without failing, it is not 
essentially a rotation plant. It cannot be used at all 
in short rotations. Its special mission is to furnish per- 



228 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

manent pasture and in a less degree permanent meadow. 
When these meadows and pastures are broken, however, 
it should be followed as in the case of other grasses by 
crops that luxuriate in decaying vegetable matter such 
as the small cereal grains, corn and potatoes. It is espe- 
cially important that this grass shall be sown on a sur- 
face made clean by the processes of cultivation, because 
of the long time that it takes to become established. 
Otherwise weeds will crowd and smother the plants. 

Preparing the Soil. — In preparing the soil for mead- 
ow foxtail, fineness, firmness, moistness, richness, and 
cleanness should be sought, especially the conditions 
last named. The plants being delicate at the first grow 
slowly, hence, unless the conditions are quite favorable 
when this grass is sown alone it is much liable to be 
smothered with weeds ; when the soil is not naturally rich 
it should be fertilized with reasonably well decomposed 
farmyard manure or by applying artificial fertilizers 
particularly such as are reasonably rich in nitrogen. 
When sown with other grasses to provide permanent 
pasture the preparation that will be suitable in making 
a seed bed for such pastures will also be suitable for 
meadow foxtail. (See p. 385.) 

Sowing. — The seed of meadow foxtail may be sown in 
the autumn or in the spring in climates not so stern as 
to preclude autumn sowing. In the New England and 
middle states it is better to sow in the spring and early 
in order to take advantage of all the moisture of the 
season. In the southern states and beyond the Cascade 
mountains it may be sown in the autumn, preferably as 
soon as the autumn rains come. 



MEADOW FOXTAIL. 229 

The seed is very light, weighing only five pounds 
to the bushel when sown in the chaff in which form it is 
usually sown, consequently it can only be sown by hand. 
When sown in permanent mixtures the seed is of course 
mingled with the seeds of at least such of the other 
grasses in the mixture as call for hand sowing. 

When sown alone for meadow or for seed, it is prob- 
ably better to sow it with than without a nurse crop, but 
the latter must not be of a character to form a dense 
shade. This can be regulated when sowing with any of 
the small cereal grains by sowing them more or less 
thinly according to the kind of the grain. If the seed 
is sown without a nurse crop much attention should be 
given to keeping weeds so cut back that they will not 
crowd the grass nor mature seeds. 

When sown alone authorities claim that not less than 
3 bushels per acre should be used when sown in the 
chaff. If the seed was of the best this would seem to 
be an excessive quantity, as according to Flint, an ounce 
contains 76,000 seeds, but for various reasons it is not 
easy to secure good, reliable, pure and fresh seed, hence 
under ordinary conditions it may be well to sow the 
quantity named. As with timothy the plants do not 
thicken when once set, hence, liberal sowing at the first 
is a necessity. When sown to provide permanent pas- 
ture the amount of seed to use will vary with the prom- 
inence to be given to this grass in the pasture. As the 
plants are feeble when young and therefore much liable 
to be overshadowed by those that are more vigorous a 
liberal use of seed would be advisable in permanent pas- 
tures. It should not be necessary, however, to sow more 



230 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

than 5 pounds of seed per acre in any instance, and 
seldom necessary to sow so much. From 2 to 3 pounds 
of good seed should furnish many plants in the mixture. 
For various reasons it is not easy to secure really good 
seed. This no doubt accounts in part at least for the 
unsatisfactory results that have frequently followed 
the sowing of this grass under American conditions. 
The high price of the seed has also been against its 
extensive use. 

Pasturing. — The high value of meadow foxtail in 
producing pasture under conditions favorable to its 
growth cannot be questioned. Its earliness, permanency, 
persistency in growth and high palatability recommend 
it for such a use. Moreover it withstands cropping well. 
It is these qualities which have made it a favorite pas- 
ture grass in the permanent pastures of Britain and 
more especially in the sheep grazing districts. While 
it may be cropped down quite early in the season at 
which time it grows with much vigor, it does not grow 
so well later, hence it is much better to sow it with 
other grasses when sowing it for pasture. Since it lux- 
uriates on rich soil it is peculiarly responsive to dress- 
ings of fertilizer in various forms. 

Harvesting for Hay.- — Although frequently grown for 
hay in Europe, it is questionable if this grass will ever 
become highly popular as a hay plant under American 
conditions, since where the conditions are most favor- 
able to its growth in this country they are also quite 
favorable for the growth of timothy, which is king 
among the hay plants in America. It is very light, com- 
pared with timothy and is lacking in what may be 



MEADOW FOXTAIL. 231 

termed "body," that is substance, firmness and weight. 
The slowness with which it matures also so far unfits it 
for a hay crop. 

It should be cut for hay when in bloom as then it 
is claimed the plants are possessed of a maximum 
amount of nutrition. When in full bloom a field of 
meadow foxtail is handsome to look upon. It is claimed 
that the hay has a higher nutrition than timothy. It 
may be cut and harvested in the same way as timothy. 
(Seep. 72.) 

Securing Seed. — The author has not been able to 
obtain any information with reference to harvesting 
the seed crop under American conditions. The seed 
used in this country would seem to be all or nearly all 
imported. Much of it is also adulterated with velvet 
grass (Holcus lanatus) or with rye grass. The seed crop 
ripens unevenly. Some of the heads are approaching 
ripeness while other heads are still in flower. The 
seed crop is also said to be peculiarly liable to injury 
from insects and also blight. Moreover it is not easy to 
thresh and prepare for market. These difficulties in the 
way of procuring seed explain in part at least why the 
seed is high. 

Renewing. — When this grass is sown for meadow and 
the stand is imperfect it would probably be better to 
refit the land and sow again than to add seed, without 
thus preparing the soil, as the young plants are unable 
to flourish in soil where the conditions are not highly 
favorable. The. same reasoning will apply in the main 
to the renewal of the pastures. 



CHAPTER XII. 

GRASSES USEFUL BUT DIFFICULT OF ERADICATION. 

In this chapter three grasses will be discussed which 
are now almost universally looked upon as weeds. These 
are Quack grass (Agropyrum repens) , Johnson grass 
(Sorghum halapense) and Crab grass (Panicum San- 
guinale). All three are possessed of much economic 
value and yet they are so difficult of eradication that 
they have become in a sense the dread of the farmers in 
localities into which they have been introduced. In 
the judgment of the author, they should never be sown 
on land that is to be tilled again. However, there are 
localities where they have become so entrenched that 
it may be the part of wisdom so to manage them that 
the highest return possible will be secured, rather than 
going to the expense of eradicating them. In other in- 
stances and generally they should be given no rest by 
those who cultivate the soil until eradication is com- 
plete. In the hope that some light may be thrown 
upon the difficult and perplexing problem of dealing 
with these in a manner at once intelligent and effective, 
these grasses will be considered separately and with 
some minuteness. 

QUACK GRASS. 

Quack grass (Triticum or agropyrum repens) is prob- 
ably more frequently designated Couch grass by those 





C 




- 


d 


> 


oa 


W 





© 


- 


w 


- 


> 


3 


T 


OJ 



o c^ 




, QUACK GRASS. 235 

who have written with reference to it, but the tendency 
now is to call it Quack grass. It is also known by the 
names Twitch, Quitch, Squitch, Witch, Scutch, Quake, 
Dog, Durfee, Chandler, Fin's, Rye or Creeping Wheat 
grass. Dogs occasionally eat of the leaves, since with 
them it acts medicinally as an emetic, hence the name 
Dog grass. The terms Rye and Wheat grass have doubt- 
less arisen from the resemblance of the plants to those of 
rye and wheat. It varies much and is closely allied to 
Varieties that are not so persistent in the habit of retain- 
ing a hold upon the soil. 

This perennial grass thickens very quickly in the soil 
where it once gains a foothold, and to the extent of be- 
coming so matted or sodbound that the yield of pasture 
or hay is seriously lessened when the grass is undis- 
turbed by cultivation. This result arises from the pe- 
culiar character of the root growth. The strong, stiff 
creeping root-stocks or rhizomes branch out in every 
direction and so completely fill the soil that other 
grasses or weeds cannot grow in the same. The roots 
are numerously jointed and at each joint is a bud capa- 
ble of producing a fresh plant. The plants also grow 
from seed. The stems grow from 1 to 3 feet in height, 
the average being 1^ to 2 feet. The heads or spikes are 
rather slender and usually straight, bearing considerable 
resemblance to those of wheat. The leaves are of a dark 
green shade. They bear considerable resemblance to 
those of timothy near the ground, but they are larger and 
stronger and of a darker green. 

The good qualities of quack grass may be summed up 
as follows : 1. It will grow more or less well in almost 



236 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

any kind of soil. 2. It is easily introduced and when 
once established will endure indefinitely, since it can 
withstand excessive cold or heat, drought or wet to a 
remarkable degree. 3. It pushes up quickly in the 
spring, grows abundantly until matured, makes much 
aftermath when mown and grows up freely in the late 
autumn. 4. It is much relished as pasture by all kinds 
of live stock, especially if grazed before the plants be- 
come woody, and produces as much good hay as timothy, 
when cut in season, and more nutritious in character. 5. 
It crowds out nearly all kinds of weeds where it grows. 
6. It may be made to render much service in binding 
soils along gullies and embankments. And 7. Though 
it may tend to lessen the fertility of soils when pastured 
for successive years, yet when buried in the soil it exerts, 
in many instances, a favorable influence on the same 
mechanically. 

Notwithstanding these good qualities, the author de- 
sires to say with all possible earnestness, that this grass 
should not be sown on arable farms or at least on such 
portions of them as are to be tilled, for the reason that 
it hinders cultivation ; lowers the yields in the crops, 
and requires great labor to eradicate it when this may 
be desired. Where it may be legitimately grown is 
discussed later. (See p. 238.) It also adds greatly to 
the labor of tillage by the toughness of the sod which it 
forms. This makes the land difficult to plough. Be- 
cause of the extent to which the roots fill the soil, it is 
even more difficult to provide a loose seed bed than to 
plough the land ; because of the extent to which the roots 
fill the soil, it is even more difficult to provide a loose 



QUACK GRASS. 237 

seed bed than to plough the land, and because of the 
vigor with which it grows among grain crops, it more 
or less reduces the yields. The methods of destroying 
it are discussed below. (See page 245.) 

Distribution. — Quack grass is native to Europe. In 
Great Britain and other countries, it has long been pro- 
scribed by the farmers because of the great labor which 
it has caused ; because of its persistent presence in cul- 
tivated fields. When it was introduced into this country 
is not known. There is, however, a species of grass much 
like it which is native to certain parts of the far west- 
ern plains and which is there regarded as a good pasture 
grass. 

Quack grass flourishes best in a climate that is tem- 
perate and moist and yet it will grow, but of course with 
much less vigor, in a climate both warm and dry. But 
it will grow better in temperatures that are moderately 
cool than in those which are hot. 

It will grow in almost any part of the United States 
which it is possible to cover with a mantle of vegetation. 
It would seem, however, to grow more vigorously in the 
northern and central states than in those southward. It 
has spread to a greater extent probably in the prairie 
states in the upper Mississippi basin than elsewhere, 
but for many years it has also given trouble to the farm- 
ers of New England. 

In Canada this grass will also grow with great vigor 
in all areas where the soils, when tilled, will grow cereal 
grains. But nowhere in that country does it grow with 
more vigor than in the provinces of Ontario and Que- 



238 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

bee, since in these both the soil and climatic condi- 
tions are exceedingly favorable to its growth. 

Soils. — As implied in what has already been stated, 
quack grass will grow in almost any kind of a soil. But 
it also has its favorite soils. It grows probably in 
greatest luxuriance in clay loam soils, moist and friable, 
but it also grows with much vigor on the black loam soils 
of the prairie so largely made up of decayed vegetation. 
It grows with much persistency even in stiff clays. In 
rich lands it luxuriates and also in the alluvial soils of 
river bottoms. In sands and gravels low in fertility it 
can fight the battle of existence, but from these it is 
much more easily dislodged than from soils rich and 
friable. 

Place in the Rotation. — No place can or should be as- 
signed to such a plant in any regular rotation because 
of the trouble which it gives in being removed from 
the soil. It would not be wise even to sow it in pas- 
tures mixed in character which are intended to be per- 
manent as it would certainly crowd out all or nearly 
all the other sorts because of its aggressive character. 
But the author is by no means convinced that it should 
never be sown. It may be wise, in some instances, to 
sow it on infertile sands too poor to sustain other grasses 
in good form. There may also be a place for it on cer- 
tain lands in the semi-arid region east of the Rocky 
mountains, especially in such of them as can be broken 
l»v the plough. It would seem reasonable to suppose 
that this grass would furnish much more food from a 
given area when managed as described below (see p. 



s 



QUACK GRASS. 239 

242), than is now obtained from the grasses which at 
present occupy the soil. 

Preparing the Soil. — As applicable to cultivated 
farms, it is not necessary to discuss this question; as 
on the cultivated portions of these the seed of quack 
grass should not be sown. But if it should be de- 
sired to sow the same on parts of the semi-arid range 
country when it is not expected that the soil shall 
ever be regularly tilled there can be no question but 
that a stand of the grass would be more quickly obtained 
on ploughed land than on the unbroken sod. Whether 
on such sod the seed would grow the author has not 
been able to ascertain, but the chances are that some 
of the plants would obtain a hold if the seed were sown 
in the fall ; when thus started, even though the plants 
were thin and scattered, the habit of growth in the grass 
would justify the conclusion that they would spread to 
the extent of occupying all the land. It is also ques- 
tionable, if under these conditions, the plants would 
ever become so thick and matted in their growth as in 
climates with sufficient rainfall. 

This grass may also be sown on sands too low in fertil- 
ity for regular cropping and on gravelly, stony and 
rocky places which never can be tilled. 

Sowing. — This grass will doubtless grow sown fall or 
spring, but it is difficult to obtain seed. Because of the 
weedlike character of the grass, many seedsmen do 
not keep it in stock, as it should not be sown on lands 
that grow other crops. When the seed is sown, there- 
fore, of necessity it will be without a nurse crop. After 
a seed bed has been prepared, where this is practical >le, 



240 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the seed can best be sown by hand and covered with the 
harrow. Hand sowing is also of course necessary when 
tillage is impracticable. Thin sowing would seem pref- 
erable, as, although the grass produced the first year 
or two should be less than maximum yields, these would 
be more in the years that immediately follow than if 
the grass had been sown thickly at the first, as the pas- 
ture would not so soon become sod bound to the extent 
of necessitating renewal (see p. 242). It would not be 
necessary to sow more than 12 pounds per acre. The 
seed weighs 20 to 24 pounds per bushel. 

Where it is impossible to obtain seed at a reasonable 
price, it may be possible to obtain the roots of this 
grass without other cost than that of taking them out of 
the ground. This could best be clone by the aid of a 
plough, which would turn a clean cut and narrow furrow 
and only deeply enough cut to make the roots easy of 
access. They could then be shaken free from the ad- 
herent earth with a fork. In a larger way the roots 
could be drawn to the surface by a spring tooth harrow 
and collected with a horse rake. If the roots thus se- 
cured could then be run through a cutting box so as to 
cut them in lengths not too short, material would thus 
be furnished for scattering thinly over prepared land 
and then covering the same with the harrow. The out- 
come would be quick setting of the plants. They should 
not be allowed to remain long out of the ground unless 
kept in a damp condition. This method would seem 
specially well adapted to securing a stand of the plants 
on infertile sandy soils. 



QUACK GRASS. 241 

Pasturing. — As quack grass grows up with much 
vigor in the early spring and as it becomes somewhat 
woody after the seel stems begin to push up, it ought 
to be kept grazed with reasonable closeness. If the 
seed stems are not kept from forming, much of the grass 
will be left uneaten unless the stock that graze upon it 
are compelled to eat it in order to satisfy their needs. 
The capacity of this grass to furnish grazing does not 
seem to have been tested in an experimental way, but 
there is no doubt that it is relatively high. Close graz- 
ing in the autumn would also seem justifiable because 
of the extreme hardihood of the grass. The nutrition in 
the pasture is higher than that of timothy. If grazed 
when succulent it has been pronounced excellent for 
milk production. The pastures may be greatly improved 
on some soils by harrowing early with a heavy harrow, 
while the jrround is soft. In other instances it would 
be necessary to use a disk harrow. Nitrogenous ferti- 
lizers judiciously applied will also greatly stimulate the 
growth of the pastures. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Authorities are agreed as to 
the good quality of the hay made by quack grass, pro- 
viding it is cut not later than the blossoming stage. It 
is thought to be as valuable as timothy for feeding on 
the farm, but it is not so marketable as the latter. It 
would seem correct to say that it should not be sown 
for the express purpose of providing hay, but may of 
course be legitimately used for hay where it has already 
possessed the soil. When so used it ought to be cut be- 
fore any of the seeds mature, otherwise these may be 
the means of starting the grass in fields where it is not 
Grasses — 16. 



242 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

wanted. The cutting and curing of the hay may be 
managed in the same way as the cutting and curing of 
timothy. (See p. 72.) From 1 to 4 tons are produced 
per acre. The average is probably about !■£ tons. 

Securing Seed. — This grass is seldom, if ever, grown 
for seed in the United States, hence the author is unable 
to state the best method of securing seed based on 
American experience. According to Beale, it does not 
readily produce seed until the plants become dwarfed 
and crowded because of a matted condition of growth 
or through more or less of impoverishment of the land. 
It is also quite probable that the tendency in the plants 
to produce seed is less on the humus soils of the prairie 
than on soils essentially clay in texture. It is also 
certain that more or less of the seed matures in the 
grain crop amid which this grass grows, and in this 
way aids in the distribution of the same. The capacity 
of this grass to produce seed under prairie conditions, 
would seem to have been under-estimated, otherwise 
there would be no adequate explanation of the abun- 
dant presence of this grass in the soils of the upper Mis- 
sissippi basin. If seed crops should be wanted, they 
can probably be obtained by cutting crops which mature 
seed with the binder and threshing them, as orchard 
grass is threshed. (See p. 145.) 

Renewing. — When quack grass becomes sod-bound to 
the extent of lessening the grazing furnished by it, it 
may be renewed by ploughing and then harrowing the 
land ploughed. The depth to which the land should be 
ploughed, the best season for doing the work and the 
frequency with which this should be done depend upon 



QUACK GRASS. 243 

conditions which relate chiefly to soil and climate ; con- 
sequently, uniformity in the exact methods followed in 
renewing the grass would not be wise. Ordinarily the 
land should not be ploughed more deeply than the mass 
of the roots go. The work may be best done in the early 
fall or early spring and at intervals of say 2 to 4 years. 
If ploughed quite late in the fall, the upturned roots 
would be injured by the frost in cold climates and 
ploughed late in the spring, much of the usual season for 
growth would be lost. The work should be done with 
a strong team because of the toughness of the sod. It 
should also be done with a plough that will turn a 
smooth furrow that a reasonably smooth surface may be 
made with the harrow. Such renewal is very helpful 
in increasing growth in the pasture. By such a method 
of renewal, accompanied by an occasional dressing with 
fertilizers, this grass could doubtless be grown for many 
years. 

Eradicating. — Quack grass seeds are frequently in- 
troduced along with those of seed grain, amid which 
they have grown, more especially along with wheat and 
oats. It may also be introduced in stable manure pur- 
chased in cities, towns and villages. A few plants are 
thus lodged in the fields in one or more centres. In 
these there may be but a single plant at the first. 
Through the aggressive character of the root growth, 
the plants in each center soon grow into a small patch 
and then into a large one. While the fields are being 
cultivated, the roots are being carried to other parts of 
the field by implements used in tillage. These form 
new centres from which growth radiates, insomuch that 



244 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

in time if the spread of the plants is not checked the 
field is completely possessed by the grass. 

In combating this grass, the following are among the 
most effective of the measures that may be adopted: 

1. Plough after the crops have been harvested. Work 
the roots to the surface by using some form of spring 
tooth or other harrow. Then rake with the horse rake 
and burn when dry. Follow with one or two crops of 
corn planted in hills and to which the most thorough 
cultivation is given. 

2. Sow rye in the antnmn. Let the rye mature the 
following season or graze it Avhich is preferable and 
follow with a smothering crop as sorghum or corn sown 
thickly. If necessary grow corn on the same land the 
next year, managed as outlined above. 

3. Manure the land heavily with reasonably well 
composted manure. Give to it careful and thorough 
preparation. Grow on it corn or sorghum, preferably 
the latter, sown thickly with the drill and as grain is 
sown and then follow with corn grown as described 
above. 

4. Plough the land carefully after the grass has made 
a good start in the spring. When ploughing it turn 
narrow rather than wide furrows. Then use the disk 
until a c;ood seed bed is formed and then sow barlev 
thickly, using 24 to 3 bushels of seed per acre. Plough 
again as soon as the barley crop is removed. 

5. Summer fallow the land, ploughing the same or 
stirring the surface after it has been ploughed with 
sufficient frequency to prevent the plant from breathing 
through the leaves for a single season. 



QUACK GRASS. 245 

6. Divide the infested area into two or three fields. 
Grow on these for forage sneh crops as winter rye, bar- 
ley and oats sown together, rape or kale and corn or 
sorghum; not fewer than two of these crops are to he 
grown in succession each season. These are to he 
grazed off by sheep, alternating the grazing in the dif- 
ferent fields, and the process is to be continued as long 
as may be necessary. 

7. Small patches may be virtually destroyed by en- 
closing swine on them and leaving them until they have 
consumed the roots, of which they are fond. 

.Methods 1, 2 and .'> can best be pursued in areas 
where corn is a leading crop, but, where it is not, field 
roots may be substituted for corn. Method 4 can be best 
adopted in prairie areas north of parallel 45 where liar- 
ley can be successfully grown where sown thus late. 

Observation*. — 1. Quack grass has been destroyed in 
some soils by one ploughing if done just at the setting in 
of a prolonged summer drought. The furrows should be 
narrow and left on edge as much as possible and not 
disturbed subsequently with the harrow or other im- 
plement until the grass dies through want of moisture. 

2. In seasons of much rainfall it is virtually impos- 
sible to destroy quack grass without excessive labor, as 
at such times stirring the soil usually encourages the 
growth of the grass. 

3. Whatever method of eradication may be adopted, 
it is usually necessary to dig out stray plants with a 
pronged fork in order to complete the work. With this 
object in view, such a fork should be carried in some 



246 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

way when practicable by work hands engaged in the 
various processes of cultivation. 

JOHNSON GRASS. 

Johnson grass (Sorghum halapense or Andropogon 
lialapensis) is a large, strong, coarse grass of the sor- 
ghum type that has been grown for many years in many 
parts of the South. It is also known by the names 
Means grass, Cuba grass, Guinea grass, Alabama Guinea 
grass, Syrian grass, Egyptian grass, St. Mary's grass, 
Green Valley grass, Arabian Millet and Egyptian Mil- 
let. It was introduced into South Carolina in 1835 by 
Governor Means of that state, who obtained the seed 
from Turkey, hence the name Means grass. Some years 
later William Johnson of Marion Junction, Alabama, 
who obtained the seed from Governor Means, gave much 
attention to placing its good qualities before the farmers 
of the South, hence in time it came to be known gener- 
ally as Johnson grass. It has frequently but erroneous- 
ly been called Guinea grass, since these grasses have but 
little in common, except that both under favorable con- 
ditions produce a large amount of hay, and both are 
easily injured by close pasturing. Unlike Johnson grass, 
Guinea grass has no creeping root-stocks and will not 
produce seed in the United States. It is also more deli- 
cate in winter. 

This grass is perennial and it closely resembles young 
cane until the plants are a foot high. The stems are 
usually from 3 to G feet or more in height, but they 
have been known to errow to the height of 10 to 12 feet. 
They are amply supplied with leaves, large, long and 




Fig. 13. 
JOHNSON GRASS {Sorghum halapense). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



JOHNSON GRASS. 249 

broad. The bead is open and branching, from 6 to 12 
inches long, and somewhat resembles that of barnyard 
grass. The root-stocks are creeping and so numerous 
and large that they almost completely fill the soil to a 
considerable depth. Full sized roots are sometimes 
found 2 feet below the surface. Some of them are half 
an inch in diameter and they are supplied with latent 
buds about an inch apart, hence the smallest portion if 
left in the soil is sure to grow. 

Johnson grass does not start in the spring until the 
weather is warm, and ceases to grow in the autumn as 
soon as it gets cool. In the summer it grows very rapid- 
ly under favorable conditions, and will furnish two to 
five cuttings of hay in one season. While the weather 
remains warm it may be cut as soiling food once a 
month. While stock are fond of it as hay or pasture 
when grazed sufficiently early, it does not endure close 
grazing well, but is essentially a hay and soiling plant. 
It is also a hot weather plant which can endure much 
drought, but which succumbs to excessive wetness. It 
is commonly obtained from seed, but may also be grown 
by planting the roots. The seed bears some resemblance 
to flax seed. 

The strong points of this grass may be summed up as 
follows: 1. It may be grown indefinitely as permanent 
meadow. 2. On good soil it yields enormous crops of 
hay annually in the aggregate, which may be grown at 
a profit. 3. It not only makes good hay but is a grand 
soiling plant, owing to the number of the cuttings which 
it will furnish. I. It is relished by live stock as pasture, 
soiling food or hay. 5. A winter crop of some other 



250 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

fodder may be reaped on the same land early in the 
season with more or less frequency and two cuttings of 
Johnson grass at a later period. 6. Swine can obtain 
much food from its roots. 

The weak points of Johnson grass are : 1. It will not 
grow satisfactorily in a cold climate. 2. Although 
stock are fond of it as pasture, close and continued 
grazing soon lessens its productiveness, but does not 
entirely remove it. 3. Where it has been grown it is 
likely to continue to grow more or less among crops 
sown subsequently and to their serious injury. 4. Un- 
der favorable conditions for growth it is almost impos- 
sible to eradicate it. 

Distribution. — Johnson grass is native of western 
Asia. It also thrives well in northern Africa and 
southern Europe. It was introduced into the United 
States as already stated in 1835. 

This grass is adapted only to climates that are rea- 
sonably warm. It will not grow at all satisfactorily 
under conditions where the frost penetrates the ground 
to any considerable extent, as down to the bottom of 
the frost line, it is claimed, the roots will perish. In 
latitudes where the roots are thus injured but not de- 
stroyed to their full depth, the growth that follows from 
below the frost line is late and unsatisfactory. Even in 
the southern states the growth in the spring is relatively 
late and slow, and with the first frost of autumn it 
ceases to grow. The hope, therefore, which some ranch- 
men have cherished, viz., that it will succeed in the cold 
areas of the semi-arid belt is never likely to be realized. 
It will stand dry weather well when once established^ 



JOHNSON GRASS. 251 

but will yield much better crops where the rainfall is 
normal. 

The must favorable conditions for growing Johnson 
grass in the United States are found in Xorth and 
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennes- 
see, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma and 
Texas. In Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri 
and Kansas it has been grown with some success as far 
north as the latitude of St. Louis or about 38 degrees 
north. But there would seem to be no good reasons for 
growing it in these states since they produce other forage 
crops both numerously and abundantly. Above the 
fortieth parallel the attempt should not be made to grow 
it for economic uses. On the southwestern ranges the 
conditions are too dry for growing it with much success, 
nor is it a good pasture grass, viewed from the stand- 
point of maintenance, under close grazing. Doubtless 
it will grow well in the milder of the mountain val- 
leys in the West and beyond the Cascades, but it would 
certainly be a mistake to grow it in these, because of 
the abundance of superior forage which may be grown 
in them from plants that are easy of eradication. 

In Canada there is no place for this grass. The cli- 
matic conditions are too cold. Any attempt to intro- 
duce its growth into any of the provinces of Canada for 
economic uses would be unwise. 

Soils. — Johnson grass will grow on a variety of soils, 
but it will succeed best on loams rich and deep, since 
its roots gather food from all parts of the soil down to 
a considerable distance. It would probably be correct 
to say that it will grow in good form on ground that 



252 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

will produce good crops of corn, and that where 
it is grown the other conditions being right, the 
yield will be proportionate to the richness of the soil. 
Excellent crops may usually be grown on rich alluvial 
soils and calcareous loams if well drained. It is impor- 
tant that all lands on which it grows shall be free from 
superfluous water, as soils that contain an excess of 
water are much adverse to the growth of Johnson grass. 
While it will grow on sandy and light soils, even on 
sandy dunes and barren fields, the yields are small and 
unsatisfactory. 

Place in the Rotation. — It can scarcely be said of 
Johnson grass that it' is a rotation plant, since, usually 
when grown for hay, it is grown indefinitely from year 
to year. Because of the persistence with which it grows 
up in other crops that follow it, and from year to year, 
it ought not to be grown in the alternations of any reg- 
ular rotation. Wherever it is grown, the aim should 
be to grow only Johnson grass and to so stimulate its 
growth by fertilizers that a maximum of production 
will result. But there is a sort of alternation in which 
it is frequently grown, that is to say, a crop of grain 
such as winter oats harvested early in the season, and 
two successive crops of hay taken the same season from 
the Johnson grass, these growing up from the roots of 
the grass that are in the soil. This is made possible 
and also practicable by the slow growth of the Johnson 
grass in cool weather, and by the favorable influence 
which, under certain conditions, breaking up the root 
system has upon the growth of the plants. Clover has 
also been sown on the scarified or disked surface of a 



JOHNSON GRASS. 253 

field. The first cutting would be taken for hay, after 
which the Johnson grass would take possession, the de- 
caying clover roots meanwhile feeding the grass. 

Preparing the Soil. — When the seed of Johnson grass 
is sown to obtain a stand of the plants, it should be on 
clean soil, or the weeds will greatly hinder the growth 
of the grass for a time. It grows rather slowly and deli- 
cately at the first, notwithstanding the rapidity with 
which it grows later. Similar preparation should also 
be given to the soil when it is planted from cuttings, not 
because it will be unable to make a stand under those 
conditions, but because it will require a considerably 
longer time to do so. Some growers have even gone 
the length of summer fallowing the land for one season 
before sowing this grass, but clean cultivation given to 
some crop requiring the same ought to answer the pur- 
pose sought just as well. 

Solving or Planting. — Johnson grass may be propa- 
gated from seed or by means of cuttings from the root- 
stocks. The former is the simpler method and the less 
expensive when good seed can be obtained, but in some 
instances the seed produced is not very satisfactory. 
Many of the seeds are defective and many will not ger- 
minate, but this does not hold true of all seed. 

It would be easily possible to sow the seed too early 
in the spring as the young plants are tender. Spring 
sowing may extend from April to July, April being a 
favorite month. Autumn sowing may extend from 
August to October according to the locality, September 
being a favorite month. The seeds are slow of germina- 
tion, especially in cool weather. But little return will 



254 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

be obtained from spring sown seed the same season, but 
seed sown in the autumn should produce two cuttings 
of hay the following year. The seed may be sown by 
hand and covered with the harrow or it may be put in 
with the drill. It should not be buried deeply. It is not 
customary to sow the seed in combination with other 
grasses, but it may be sown with a nurse crop. It is 
usually recommended to sow one bushel of seed per 
acre. Some again consider a peck to half a bushel suffi- 
cient. But the amount of seed that may properly be 
used is much influenced by the condition of the land. 
Heavy seeding is recommended in the spring that the 
grass may hold its own against weeds. When the land 
has been well prepared much less seed will suffice than 
when the opposite is true. When the land is weedy the 
seed is sometimes sown in rows far enough apart to ad- 
mit of horse cultivation, with a view to encourage 
growth in the plants. 

When propagated from cuttings, roots are obtained 
and planted in shallow furrows made with the plough. 
They are covered with the harrow. The roots may be 
made with the spade or corn knife, but most rapidly if 
shaken free from dirt by running them through a cut- 
ting box. Another method is to plant the roots between 
the hills of corn, or in furrows made between the corn 
rows when the corn crop is being made ready to lay by 
for the season. In yet other instances the plants are 
put in one way between the hills of corn, the cultivator 
being used but one way in cultivating the corn, and so 
as not to disturb the Johnson grass. 

Pasturing. — While this grass is much relished by 



JOHNSON GRASS. 255 

stock before the heading out stage, and Avhile it is also 
valuable for milk production, it does not stand well con- 
tinued pasturing and yet long pasturing does not com- 
pletely destroy it. It only reduces the return in pasture. 
The plants thicken up again in time when the pasturing 
ceases. When the pasturing is thus reduced, the land 
is frequently ploughed and sown with winter oats. One 
effect of the ploughing is to aid in renewing the grass. 
It is of but little use for pasture after the seed forms; 
it becomes so woody. 

Swine are fond of the roots. They search for them as 
diligently, it has been claimed, as for sweet potatoes or 
artichokes. An occasional ploughing will greatly aid 
the swine in searching for the roots. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Johnson grass is ready for be- 
ing harvested for hay when it comes into bloom. It 
ought not to be allowed to pass this stage before being 
cut, as later it turns woody very quickly. In such a 
condition live stock do not eat it readily. Some advocate 
cutting it as soon as the heads appear and before it comes 
into blossom. 

The plan is considered a good one which cuts it in the 
forenoon, following in due time with the tedder and 
raking and putting into cocks the same afternoon or 
evening. It is drawn when ready and stacked or housed, 
and is fed or baled from the stacks as circumstances war- 
rant. When curing, it is the aim to preserve the green- 
ness to the greatest extent possible. 

In the Gulf States from 3 to 5 cuttings may be ob- 
tained from it each season. The first of these is ready 
about the middle of May. Each of the subsequent cut- 



256 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

tings is ready at intervals of 4 to 6 weeks from the time 
of the cutting immediately preceding. The yield from 
each cutting is from 1 to 3 tons according to the rich- 
ness of the land. Further north from 2 to 3 cuttings 
only can be obtained, because of the shorter season for 
growth. As many as 15 tons have been grown per year, 
but under conditions that were most favorable to its 
growth, and Avhen the same has been further stimulated 
by suitable fertilizers. The average yields, however, 
will probably not exceed 4 to 5 tons per acre per season. 

Fertilizers may be applied early in the season or be- 
tween the cuttings as prudence may dictate. The kind of 
fertilizer will of course depend on the land, but nitrog- 
enous fertilizers are usually most helpful to the growth 
of this grass. One hundred pounds of gypsum per acre 
and a similar amount of complete fertilizer applied be- 
fore or after the first cutting have given good results. 
Of course where this grass is to be cut from year to 
year indefinitely, .the question of proper fertilization 
becomes one of the very first in importance. 

In some sections of the South, more especially in the 
Gulf States, some growers have large areas laid down 
to this grass. They bale the hay. For this hay there 
is a good demand in the South, and large profits are 
made in some instances from growing it. Notwithstand- 
ing the coarseness of the hay, it is quite palatable, hav- 
ing in it a considerable quantity of saccharine content. 

Seciirinfj Seed. — This grass seeds freely, but under 
some conditions and in some seasons, the seed does not 
fill out well. A good crop of seed would lie about 
bushels per acre. The first cutting of the grass for the 



JOHNSON GRASS. 257 

season is preferred for seed, but it may be obtained from 
the second. It may be cut for seed with the binder and 
harvested with the ordinary grain separator. The bind- 
er may with advantage be set to cut the crop high, to 
avoid unnecessary work in threshing. The seed, when 
properly winnowed, should weigh 25 pounds per meas- 
ured bushel. Owing to the strong feeling that exists 
against this grass, because of the difficulty in destroying- 
it, the demand for the seed has been very greatly cur- 
tailed, and this has had the effect of discouraging the 
growth of seed. 

Renewing. — As with all plants that increase by means 
of root-stocks, pushing out horizontally into the soil, the 
tendency is constantly present in this grass to such in- 
crease in the number of the plants as to cause them to 
mat to the extent of decreasing growth. When this oc- 
curs, ploughing the land and smoothing the surface will 
renew growth in the same. And since growth in John- 
son grass entirely ceases during the season of frost the 
plan has been adopted in some instances of ploughing the 
land in the fall and sowing on it a crop of winter turf 
oats as previously intimated. But the grass should be 
well set before this is attempted. The method which 
grows clover early in the season for promoting the 
growth of the grass has already been referred to. 

Eradicating. — Testimony is almost unanimous in the 
opinion that Johnson grass cannot be entirely eradicated 
where it has once obtained a foothold. That is not the 
opinion of the author, who cherishes the view that if 
the plants are not allowed to grow above ground for a 
single season, they will die. To prevent them from 
Grasses — 17. 



258 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

breathing thus would doubtless involve great labor, but it 
should prove effective. It has been claimed that pastur- 
ing will eradicate it, but the claim is not well supported 
by facts. Close and constant pasturing will greatly de- 
crease it, but some of the plants remain ready to in- 
crease and take possession should the land be again cul- 
tivated. It is also claimed that swine will eradicate 
it if allowed to dig up its roots for the purpose of feed- 
ing on them. To accomplish this, however, may require 
several seasons, and though successful is only applica- 
ble to limited areas. 

But it is easily possible to adopt measures that will 
prevent it from gaining a foothold on a farm on which 
it has not yet appeared, and from spreading on one 
where it may be growing. 

The chief agencies in spreading it are the following: 

1. Carrying portions of the root to new centers of dis- 
tribution by means of the plow, harrow, cultivator or 
other implements of tillage. 2. Sowing the seeds along 
with those of grain amid which Johnson grass may have 
matured. 3. Seeds scattering from plants that may 
have grown up and matured in a crop of grain or in 
corn or cotton after these have been laid by. 4. In the 
droppings of cattle that may have eaten the seed. The 
last named is one of the most common mediums by which 
the seed is carried. 

The preventive measures are: 1. Exercise such care 
in tilling land where the grass already exists in certain 
places as will prevent carrying the roots to new centres. 

2. Exercise even greater care in the purchase of seed 
grain or in cleaning the same. 3. Prevent seed from 



JOHNSON GRASS. 259 

maturing in, fields where other crops are grown. 4. Do 
not allow stock to feed on hay or pasture which contains 
mature seeds. 

Value of Johnson, Grass. — Because of the many con- 
flicting views that exist in the South with reference to 
this question, it is not easy to determine as to the place 
for this grass. That quite a number in several states 
have found its cultivation largely profitable is certainly 
true. That it has proven more valuable than the cotton 
crop in many instances is equally clear. There is also 
ample evidence to show that under some conditions, 
when cotton follows this grass, its presence has not very 
seriously interfered with the cultivation of the cotton. 
And that it has considerable value as a hay and soiling 
plant cannot be questioned. Many have grown it for 
both uses with much profit and for many successive 
years. Nevertheless the difficulty of removing this grass 
from the soil is so great that numbers who have sown 
it are willing to give a handsome reward to have it erad- 
icated from their farms. Its presence on certain lands 
has certainly tended to lessen their value. This in 
itself should furnish a strong argument against extend- 
ing its growth. There is not the same necessity for 
growing it now in the South as formerly, since other 
hay and pasture plants are now better known, which 
may be grown without experiencing serious difficulty in 
removing them from the land. While, in some in- 
stances, it may be well to make the best of the presence 
of this plant where it has possessed the land, it should 
certainly be the aim to prevent its further distribution 



260 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and to eradicate it completely where it is present only in 
patches, small or large. 

CRAB GRASS. 

Crab Grass (Panicum sanguinale) is one of a some- 
what numerous family of plants. It is doubtless so 
named from the fancied resemblance which its spikelets 
bear to the claw of a crab. 

The steins grow from 1 to 3 feet high. They have 
been known to reach the height of 7 feet, but the aver- 
age height in good soil is a little more than 2 feet. 
They are much branched and are somewhat decumbent 
at the base. Under favorable conditions roots are 
formed at the lower nodes. From three to six flower 
spikelets from 3 to 6 inches long proceed from the top 
of the stem. These produce seeds freely. The roots 
are fibrous. 

Crab grass is an annual which grows best in sum- 
mer and in the hottest weather. It springs up in stub- 
ble fields where grain has been grown, and in a few 
weeks, if encouraged by frequent showers, will produce 
one or even two crops of hay. It will also grow up 
quickly in corn that is laid by, so as to cover the ground 
deeply with a coating of herbage. It is very trouble- 
some in cultivated crops and in gardens, more especially 
when these grow in fertile soils, but in grass crops that 
are at all permanent in character it soon gives way to 
other grasses. It furnishes excellent hay and grazing, 
being at once palatable and nutritious. This singular 
plant has the characteristic of being one of the best hay 
plants of the South and at the same time one of the 
most troublesome weeds. 



CRAB GRASS. 261 

Distribution. — Crab grass is said to be native to the 
South and also introduced from the old world. It cer- 
tainly finds a very congenial home in the South. It 
grows in all the states thereof from Virginia to Texas. 
North of the Ohio river it is but little known. Above 
that line it is not grown to provide hay or grazing. 

Soils. — Crab grass grows most luxuriantly in good 
soils. The richer the soil the more luxuriantly will it 
grow, but it will grow reasonably well in any soil that 
will produce crops of grain, corn, tobacco or cotton. 

Place in the Rotation. — This grass being at the same 
time a weed is not grown- in any regular rotation. 
When used for hay and pasture, such utilization is sim- 
ply making the best of an intruder, which grows as it 
were spontaneously in the cultivated fields. It may 
also be utilized in putting humus in the soil by plough- 
ing it under in the autumn. This of course ought to be 
done before it matures seed. 

Preparing the Soil. — Since the seed of this grass is 
seldom or never sown, of course no preparation of the 
soil is necessarv. Nevertheless when it is desired to get 
grazing from it as early as possible, land in which the 
seeds are present, if ploughed in May, harrowed and 
rolled, will soon be covered with a luxuriant growth. 
Two mowings may be obtained from land treated thus. 

Sowing. — Since the crop grows spontaneously it is 
seldom or never sown. In fact it would not seem wise 
to sow a plant which is troublesome to destroy. The 
aim should rather be to get rid of it. The seeds will 
live long in the soil — how long is not known. 

Pasturing.— This grass furnishes excellent grazing 



262 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

from June or July onward until autumn. In a few 
weeks after a grain crop is cut, it furnishes fine pasture, 
coming in at a season when in its absence it would fre- 
quently be necessary to resort to soiling crops. But it 
will not provide grazing in winter. 

In the "Farmers Book of Grasses," Dr. D. L. Phares, 
the author, gives an interesting experience in growing 
this grass for hay in alternation with Burr clover (Med- 
icago maculata), grown to provide winter and spring 
grazing. The clover was sown on prepared land in the 
autumn and grazed from December to April. The clov- 
er then matured enough of seed to provide another crop 
before the plants died in May. They had no sooner dis- 
appeared than the crab grass sprang up thickly and was 
mowed in July or August and again in October. The 
yield of the crab grass was 2^ to 3 tons per acre from the 
two cuttings. The second cutting was much lighter 
than the first, but of finer quality. The clover would 
then spring up again and furnish grazing for the winter 
1o be followed in turn by the crab grass. This was con- 
tinued for several years without diminution in the 
yields of the clover or the crab grass. The clover was 
apparently able to keep the soil supplied with a suf- 
ficiency of nitrogen. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Crab grass hay is harvested 
like other hay. It should be cut when the flowers are 
formed. It cures readily and quickly in good weather, 
but takes great injury from rain or even from heavy 
dews. In showery weather the cocks should if possi- 
ble be protected by caps, and when stacked they should 
be topped out with other grass that turns the rain bet- 



CRAB GRASS. 263 

ter than crab grass. The yields of hay reaped in stub- 
ble fields run from 1 to 2 tons per acre on average land. 
The hay contains but little fiber and stands well in nu- 
tritive qualities and is much relished by stock. It has 
been claimed by good authorities that more hay is made 
from this grass in the South than from any other grass. 
Since it is so frequently used for this purpose, and 
since it costs only the harvesting of the crop, it has been 
called "the poor man's hay." In some instances after 
corn has been harvested it is cut for hay, but usually it 
would be a better plan to graze the grass under such con- 
ditions than mow it. When crab grass grows up strong- 
ly amid cow peas intended for hay, the grass will facili- 
tate the curing of the hay when the crop is cut. 

Securing Seed. — As the seed of crab grass is seldom, 
if ever sown, it is very seldom if ever saved for sowing. 
If wanted, however, it could easily be obtained by cut- 
ting with the binder and threshing the crop. 

Methods of Eradicating. — It has been claimed that 
hay made from this grass has been more valuable acre 
for acre than the revenue obtained from cotton or corn. 
Nevertheless because of the trouble which it gives in 
cultivated crops, it would seem to be wise to discourage 
its growth. 

To eradicate it is no easy task since it seeds so quick- 
ly and profusely, and the seeds retain germinating pow- 
er for so long a period in the soil. The season for at- 
tacking it is that time of the year when it matures 
seed, and the aim should be to adopt those methods of 
eradication that will most quickly cause the seeds to 
germinate with a view to destroying them. The fol- 



264 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

lowing methods are submitted among others that might 
be given: 1. Sow forage crops and graze them off as 
described in method 6 given for eradicating quack grass 
(see p. 247). Proceed thus for a term sufficiently long 
to effect the end sought. 2. Sow cow peas or some crop 
that requires cultivation from year to year and in alter- 
nation with grain crops for a period sufficiently long. 
ISTo crab grass seeds should be allowed to mature in the 
cultivated crop. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 

THE RYE GRASSES. 

Of the rye grasses but three would seem deserving 
of the attention of those who till the lands of the United 
States and Canada. They are considered in the present 
chapter; these are Western Rye grass (Agropyrum ten- 
erum), Perennial Rye grass (Lolium perenne), and Ital- 
ian Rye grass (Lolium Italicum.) 

Western Rye grass, native to the prairies of the 
American and Canadian Northwest, is possessed of con- 
siderable merit and is likely to be extensively cultivated 
in northern areas. Perennial and Italian Rye grasses 
have long been high in favor with the agriculturists of 
Europe. They have not been assigned an equally im- 
portant place under American conditions but have suf- 
ficient adaptation to certain of these conditions to merit 
attention. 

WESTERN RYE GRASS. 

Western Rye grass (Agropyrum tenerum) is some- 
times called Slender Wheat grass. The term Rye grass 
has doubtless been applied to it from the somewhat close 
resemblance which it bears to that plant. Although 
of the same family as quack grass, it does not send out 
underground stems like the latter. The name Slender 
Wheat grass has doubtless been applied to it because of 



266 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the resemblance which the long, slender and smooth 
heads bear to those of wheat. It is the only grass 
among the hundreds growing wild on the prairies of the 
West or Northwest which, up to the present time, has 
been found of sufficient value to give it a place among 
the cultivated grasses. 

Western Rye grass is a perennial. Properly speak- 
ing, it is a bunch grass. It is the famous bunch grass 
of the bunch grass ranges of the Canadian Northwest. 
When growing on the ranges the height at maturity is 
from 12 to IS inches, but under cultivation it grows to 
the average height of about 3 feet ; in some instances, 
it attains to the height of 4 feet. When the plants do 
not grow too closely, they produce many leaves around 
the crown but these are not so numerous, nor do they 
grow as high as those of Russian bronie grass. Several 
stems rise from one plant. These grow erectly and 
produce a head with an average height of about 6 
inches but sometimes they are considerably longer. The 
roots are fibrous and abundant ; the long tendrils from 
the same push away far downward into the soil. It 
is the root system of growth, doubtless, that gives the 
plant the marked ability which it possesses of with- 
standing drought. 

Western Rye grass is one of the hardiest of grasses; 
none of the cultivated grasses excels it for growing un- 
der dry conditions. Under very dry conditions it will 
give better yields than Russian brome. It does not be- 
gin to grow so early in the spring as some other grasses, 
nor does it grow with much vigor in the autumn. It 
comes into flower from July first and onward and is a 










*-s 


H 






O 




5 N 


W 


*1 




> 







3 o 


(jj 


m 




WESTERN RYE GRASS. 269 

great producer of seed. It will thrive under a great 
variety of conditions and will produce relatively large 
quantities of hay. Moreover, like timothy, the hay is 
easily handled ; the seed is easily sown and the crops of 
hay and seed are easily managed. 

While it is a good pasture grass, the season of abun- 
dant growth is not of very long duration. If pastured 
before the heading out stage, it is much relished by 
stock but not so much at a later stage of growth. The 
hay is eaten readily by stock, if cut early, but is not 
highly relished, if harvested later ; and it produces but 
little aftermath. 

Compared with Russian brome grass, its great rival in 
the entire American 'Northwest, the Russian brome 
starts earlier in the spring, produces a more abundant 
leaf growth through the season and especially in the au- 
tumn and furnishes hay that is better relished. But the 
Western Rye produces somewhat heavier yields of hay 
under like conditions ; especially under dry conditions, 
it grows somewhat better on soils more or less impreg- 
nated with alkali ; furnishes seed that is more easily 
secured and gives no trouble as the Russian sometimes 
does by remaining in the land. Both are strongly 
drought resistant, but in this respect the rye grass prob- 
ably excels; both will grow well in moist conditions but 
in this respect the Russian brome excels ; both are good 
soil binders but here again the Russian brome is some- 
what ahead. 

Distribution. — Western rye grass is indigenous to 
America. Although it has doubtless grown wild on 
the Western prairies during forgotten centuries, it was 



270 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

not until 1880 that attempts were made to improve it by 
cultivation. In that year, Mr. Kenneth Mclvor of Vir- 
den, Manitoba, Canada, gathered some of the seed with 
a view to test its qualities under cultivation. It was 
Mr. Mclvor who first drew the attention of the public to 
its merits. In this way the Canadian and American 
departments of agriculture became interested in the dis- 
tribution of the seed for experimental purposes in vari- 
ous provinces and states. 

This grass will grow under a great variety of climatic 
conditions but is relatively better adapted to cool 
than to hot temperatures. Although it will grow more 
readily and vigorously in moist climates, it has peculiar 
adaptation for growing on the dry prairies of the West. 
No amount of cold seems to injure the plants. 

Western Rye grass grows on the western prairies 
from California and Xcw Mexico on the south to Brit- 
ish Columbia and Athabasca on the north. It has also 
been found as far east as New Hampshire. On the 
plains of the western and more especially the north- 
western prairies, it has rendered the best service in pro- 
viding grazing for the live stock of the ranchman. Its 
most congenial home in a state of nature is the foothills 
and the bench lands of the Rocky mountains. In the 
western states it has rendered excellent service on the 
ramres from Nebraska northward. East of the Mis- 
sissippi river other grasses, already introduced, so com- 
pletely meet the requirement of farmers, that it is not 
probably western rye grass will be much grown in these. 

In Canada although it will grow well under cultiva- 
tion from sea to sea, it will be most helpful in the 



WESTERN RYE GRASS. 271 

provinces west from Lake Superior and especially in lo- 
calities more or less deficient in rainfall. East from 
Lake Superior, timothy will meet the needs of the farm- 
er better than western rye grass. 

Soils. — There are hut few grasses, if indeed any, 
which adapt themselves so well to a wide range of soils 
and soil conditions. As with other grasses, the better 
the soil the better the crop yields will be, but it Avil] 
also give fair returns from sands and humus soils, so 
light as to lift with the winds. It has peculiar adapta- 
tion for being sown on prairie soils, and its great value 
on these consists in the comparatively good yields that 
may be obtained from it, under conditions too dry for 
the most successful growth of grasses that are more pala- 
table. It will grow on heavy soils, as well as on those 
that are light, and will even give good returns on soils 
so impregnated with alkali that they will not grow a good 
crop of grain. When grown for a term of years on these, 
grain crops may then be grown successfully, but much 
alkali will, of course, prevent the successful growth of 
either. 

Preparing Hie Soil.— In preparing the soil for this 
grass, it is better usually to plough in the autumn, and 
then to harrow at intervals in the spring, until the 
grass is sown about the end of May. By that time 
many of the weed seeds near the surface have been 
sprouted. When sown with a nurse crop which is to 
be harvested, it must, of course, be sown early. On soils 
that drift, the plan has succeeded well, which ploughs 
the land, not too early, so as to escape as far as practica- 
ble the usual season of soil drifting; to plough somewhat 



272 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

deeply and then to sow along with some grain, any time 
between June and the early autnmn when the ground is 
moist. Preparing the land and sowing the seed of this 
grass must be considered with special reference to the 
needs of areas, frequently short in rainfall, since it is in 
these that western rye grass will render the most im- 
portant service. 

Solving. — Under the conditions where the necessity 
exists for sowing western rye grass, it can be sown with 
the best assurance of success somewhat late in May or in 
June, and on soil prepared by ploughing in the fall and 
giving successive harrowings in the spring. When thus 
sown, it is considered preferable to sow without a nurse 
crop; and then to mow once or twice to prevent weeds 
from seeding, leaving the plants cut to mulch the soil. 
The seed should be sown when the land has been mois- 
tened by rain. In some instances, pasturing has not 
been found hurtful. In many places, however, espe- 
cially where the annual rainfall is reasonably ample, 
it has succeeded quite well when sown in the spring on 
fall ploughed land and with a lightly seeded nurse crop 
as 2 to 4 pecks of oats. In a normal season, the oats may 
be cut when ripe, but in a dry year they should be cut 
somewhat high for hay, as soon as fully out in head. 
When sown early on soils that blow, the grain should be 
allowed to reach the height of 2 or 3 inches before sow- 
ing the rye grass seed; but when sown on such soils after 
June first, it will answer to sow at the same time as the 
nurse crop. It may be sown by hand or with a hand 
seeder specially made to sow such grass seeds, which 
is wheeled over the ground when in use and covered 



WESTERN RYE GRASS. 273 

with the harrow ; it may be sown with some makes of 
grain drill as, for instance, the "Superior" with a "ver- 
tical feeder." To feed out well, the seed must be well 
cleaned. It should be put in from 1 to 3 inches deep, 
according to the soil and season ; when sown on soils 
that will drift after the grain is up, it is better to sow 
across the grain rows than in the same direction. 

More commonly this grass is sown alone, and when 
sown for seed, it must be sown thus. For hay, it may 
sometimes be preferable to sow it with Russian brome 
grass as the latter aids in making a thicker stand by 
growing between the bunches of the rye grass, while the 
former aids in the quick curing of the hay. For pas- 
ture, western rye grass may be sown alone but better 
probably with Russian brome grass and in some areas 
with the said grass and timothy. 

When sown alone, about 15 pounds of seed per acre 
is the correct quantity to sow ; wdien sown with Russian 
brome grass 7-J pounds of each may be sown for hay, 
using a little more seed for pasture ; when timothy is 
added, the proportions w r ould be about 6 pounds each 
of Russian brome and western rye and 4 pounds of tim- 
othy. 

Pasturing. — Western rye grass furnishes pasture 
abundant and nutritious in the spring and summer 
months, but loses its succulence in the autumn, having 
a tendency, like various other range grasses, to cure in 
the soil. It is more nutritious than Russian brome 
grass or timothy, either as pasture or hay. Some grow- 
ers pasture their meadows for a time in the spring but 
under some conditions this would be hazardous. 
Grasses — 18. 



274 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Western rye grass should be 
harvested with much promptness or it will lose rapidly 
in palatability. When allowed to get ripe or nearly so, 
before it is cut, it will not be eaten readily by farm ani- 
mals. It should be cut as soon as fully out in head 
which will be early in July. When grown along with 
Russian brome, the latter will be further advanced but 
it will not seriously injure it for hay. 

It is harvested for hay with the mower and is han- 
dled in the same way as timothy; it is easily handled, 
being straight like timothy. The yield under ordinary 
conditions will run from 1 to 2 tons per acre, but under 
superior conditions of cultivation has yielded as high 
as 3 to 4 tons per acre. 

Securing Seed. — Western rye grass seeds freely. 
Good average crops will produce 300 to 400 pounds of 
seed per acre and the seed weighs 20 pounds per bushel. 
But seed very clean and good weighs 25 pounds. The 
crop should be harvested with the binder and when the 
seeds are fully ripe. This may be known by the change 
in the color. It should then be harvested promptly or 
there will be loss of seed from shelling. It is threshed 
with the grain thresher and winnowed with the fanning 
mill, much the same as timothy. (See p. 75.) The 
seed is nearly as easily cleaned as that of an ordinary 
oat crop. 

Renewing. — It is not usual to try to renew western 
rye grass, when it begins to fail, but rather to break it 
up by ploughing and sow again, if necessary. It will fur- 
nish remunerative crops of hay or seed for three or four 
seasons. The ground then becomes so settled and dry 



PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 275 

that it does not yield so well, but it will maintain its 
hold on many soils for, at least, half a score of years. 
Like all cultivated grasses on the prairie, it is quite re- 
sponsive to top dressings of farmyard manure. There 
is probably no better way in which such manure can 
be applied where this grass is grown. 

PERENNIAL EYE GRASSES. 

Perennial Rye grass (Lolium Perenne) is also called 
English Rye grass, Rye grass, Ray grass and Darnel. 
In some localities it is chiefly known by the name Eng- 
lish Rye grass, and this name has doubtless come to be 
applied to it because of the extent to which it has been 
cultivated in England. In that country there are sev- 
eral varieties and sub-varieties named chiefly after 
seedsmen or seed-firms. 

This grass is perennial and stoloniferous in its habit 
of growth, but like timothy, under ordinary conditions 
it is not a long lived perennial, seldom enduring for a 
longer period than seven years and usually for a period 
considerably shorter. The stems are numerous and 
slender and grow from 1 to 3 feet high, the average be- 
ing less than 2 feet rather than more. Each stem has 
4 to 6 joints, whicli sometimes assume a brownish tint. 
The leaves are numerous and succulent and of a darker 
green than those of Italian rye grass. The heads are 
slender and from 3 to 10 inches long though commonly 
not more than 6 inches. In general appearance peren- 
nial rye grass has some resemblance to quack grass 
(Triticum re pens). The roots do not feed deeply. 
Stems push out laterally and from these the joints of 
the upright stems ascend. 



276 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Although perennial rye grass has long stood in the 
front rank among cultivated grasses in Britain, it may 
not become greatly popular in this country, for the rea- 
son, probably, that in the sections best adapted to its 
growth, timothy has stood higher in favor. While it 
is of a vigorous habit of growth, starts early in the sea- 
son and produces reasonably good grazing and hay, it 
has some weaknesses. Being a shallow feeding plant, it 
is easily injured by drought ; being a gross feeding plant 
it is exhaustive on the soil. It is too short lived to an- 
swer well for permanent meadows or pastures and can- 
not stand temperatures that are quite low in winter, 
nor great heat in summer. Moreover it is relatively low 
in nutrition and in a dry season produces but little aft- 
ermath after it is mown. 

But under favorable conditions, that is on somewhat 
heavy soils, it is a great producer, more especially of 
hay, and it produces seed abundantly. 

Live stock are fond of it both as hay and pasture, but 
its relatively low nutrition is against it for both uses. 
It is not well able long to withstand the crowding of cer- 
tain other grasses ; hence, under United States condi- 
tions it is usually better to sow it alone or along with 
other grasses or clovers intended for meadows of limited 
duration. It has also been recommended for lawns but 
for this purpose it is usually too short lived. 

Distribution. — Perennial rye grass is native to Eur- 
ope and probably parts of Asia and Africa. In the mild 
and temperate climates of England, France and other 
countries of Europe, it has long^been cultivated, in Eng- 
land for more than two hundred years and in France for 




Fig. 15. 

PEEENNIAL RYE GRASS {Lolium perenne). 

Oregon Experiment Station. 



PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 279 

a longer period. In Britain it is said to have been pop- 
ularly grown at least one hundred years before the 
growing timothy and orchard grass became general. In 
some parts of the United States, particularly in the 
East and South, it has been grown to some extent for 
nearly a century, but at no time does it appear to have 
become greatly popular, under United States condi- 
tions, for the reason probably that timothy and orchard 
grass, the two great rivals of perennial rye grass in its 
own special domain, are considered superior. This 
grass grows at its best in climates that are temperate and 
moist. It is not well able to withstand extremes of 
heat or cold or drought, consequently its growth in the 
United States is likely to be confined to areas somewhat 
limited in comparison to the whole area. 

Since this grass is best suited to a climate temperate 
and moist, it grows fairly well in much of New Eng- 
land, in the North Atlantic States, south of New Eng- 
land and in the states which border on Lakes Erie and 
Ontario. But the most popular conditions for its 
growth are probably found in Washington and Oregon, 
west of the Cascade mountains. In the upper Missis- 
sippi basin it does not very well withstand the extremes 
of heat and cold. At the Minnesota Experiment Sta- 
tion, St. Anthony Park, the author was able to secure a 
good growth of this grass in summer, but it died in 
winter. In the southern states, the summer heat is 
too great for this grass, and in the semi-arid belt and 
southwestern states, it is quite unsuited to the average 
conditions pertaining to plant growth. 

In Canada, perennial rye grass is never likely to be 



280 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

given an important place except in Southern Ontario 
and western British Columbia the winter climate is too 
cold for growing it in the very best form, and in these 
orchard grass and especially timothy are considered su- 
perior. 

Soils. — The best soils for perennial rye grass are 
those that are moist, that contain a considerable content 
of clay, and at the same time are rich in nutriment. 
Light sands, low in fertility, are ill adapted to its 
growth. Xor is it well able to fight its battle on the 
stift'est clay. In Europe the many variations which 
characterize this grass have given it varied adaptation 
to soil conditions which are not easily specified. But 
few grasses respond more readily to applications of ma- 
nure, solid or liquid, or to suitable dressings with com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

Place in the Rotation. — Where the conditions are fa- 
vorable for the growth of this grass, its place in the ro- 
tation would be much the same as for timothy. (See p. 
57.) Briefly stated it would be in a rotation extend- 
ing from 3 to 7 years. It would come in properly after 
a cleaning crop, and would precede a crop which feeds 
well on decaying vegetable matter in the soil. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil suit- 
able for perennial rye grass is about the same as what 
is suitable for timothy. (See p. 58.) Stated briefly 
the seed bed should be clean, finely pulverized near the 
surface, firm and moist, and may be made fall or 
spring. But since the seed is relatively high in germin- 
ating power, a stand may be more easily secured though 



PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 281 

the preparation has been defective than with some other 
grasses. 

Sowing. — Perennial rye grass may be sown in the 
autumn or in the spring. Early sowing is to be pre- 
ferred both seasons when practicable, that the plants 
may enter the winter in a strong condition in the one 
case, and that they may better withstand dry weather in 
summer in the other. August and September would 
be favorable months for autumn sowing. In the spring- 
it is usually considered preferable to defer sowing until 
the seed may be sown by hand and then covered with the 
harrow. 

The seed may be sown alone or in certain combina- 
tions. When wanted for soiling food, it is usually 
sown alone ; when wanted for hay it may be sown with 
advantage with red clover, as both mature early ; when 
wanted for pasture it may be sown alone, but better 
with grasses not too aggressive in character. In the 
North, perennial rye grass, medium red clover and tim- 
othy would make a suitable combination on average 
soils, and in the South perennial rye grass, orchard grass 
and tall oat grass. As with all varieties of grass, it is 
commonly sown by hand, and covered with harrow or 
roller or by using both. 

When sown alone not less than 1 bushel of seed is 
required nor more than 2 bushels. When sown with 
red clover 12 pounds of the rye grass and 10 pounds of 
the clover should ordinarily suffice. When timothy is 
added to the mixture the amounts of rye grass and clover 
respectively should be reduced. With orchard grass 
and tall oat grass in the South 12 pounds of the rye 



282 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

grass should ordinarily suffice, but there may be good 
reasons for varying the same considerably. 

Pasturing. — Perennial rye grass furnishes much, pas- 
ture early in the season but not in the latter part of the 
same. Although it is relished by live stock before the 
time of coming out in head it is not so relished after 
that stage is reached, consequently when it is pastured 
it should be kept grazed down with at least reasonable 
closeness. Nor does it stand grazing as well as some 
other grasses. Consequently it is more frequently grown 
for hay or for soiling than for pasture. But on heavy 
soils it is much better for grazing than on those opposite 
in character. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Perennial rye grass should be 
cut for hay when in blossom and in the early stage of 
bloom. Beyond this stage it becomes woody quickly. 
The method of cutting and curing are usually the same 
as for timothy. (See p. 72.) When grown alone this 
grass is probably better adapted to soiling than to any 
other use, since it is ready early in the season and when 
cut about the stage of coming into head or sooner quick- 
ly grows up again. 

Securing Seed. — This grass is a heavy producer of 
seed. On rich soils it is claimed that it has produced as 
much as 40 bushels of seed per acre. This amount, 
however, is far beyond the average. There is perhaps 
no better way of harvesting this crop for seed than by 
cutting it witli the binder, and curing in the long rather 
than in the round shock, and threshing with the grain 
separator. But there would seem to be no good reasons 
why the seed should not be gathered with the stripper. 



ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 283 

This, of course, would leave the haulm upon the 
ground, but in any event it is uot of very much value 
for food. Because of the abundance of the seed pro- 
duction, the seed does not command so high a price as 
that of many of the other grasses. The temptation, 
therefore, is ever present with seedsmen who are so 
minded, to mix the seed with that of other grasses which 
are higher. With some of these the fraud is not easily 
detected bv the unskilled. Seed crops tend much to ex- 
haust the fertility of the land which, of course, is so far 
an objection to growing them. 

Renewing. — Since rye grass is grown in short rather 
than in long rotations it is not usuallv necessary to try 
and renew it, when the stand secured is only partial. It 
is usually considered more profitable to prepare land 
and sow again. 

ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 

Italian Rye grass (Lolium Italicum) is so named 
doubtless from the fact that it has long been grown in 
Northern Italy, from which it has been distributed 
into various countries. It is also sometimes called Ray 
grass. It does not seem to have been introduced into 
Western Europe until a period considerably later than 
the introduction of perennial rye grass. 

Italian rye grass grows to the height of 2 to 3 feet. 
The leaves are abundant. The heads are slender, from 
6 to 12 inches long and sometimes nodding. The fib- 
rous roots have much power to gather food from the 
land on which it grows. The leaves are of a dark green 
and have a peculiar "glint" which makes a field of this 
grass look very beautiful when swayed by the wind. 



284 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

This crass may be distinguished from other rye 
grasses by having: short, armed or bearded spikelets, and 
by the quicker, larger and more vigorous character of 
the growth. It also differs from perennial rye grass 
in having broader leaves, in the better feeding quality 
of the grass and in its being less permanent. 

Italian rye grass is biennial or perennial, frequently 
lasting two to three years. Under some conditions, how- 
ever, it is an annual. The difference in duration arises 
doubtless from a difference in conditions of climate and 
soil and from a difference in the treatment of the plants. 
In climates with stern winters it is an annual. It 
would seem to stand foremost in rapidity of growth 
throughout the entire season of vegetation. As many as 
eight or ten cuttings have been made in a single season 
under forced conditions of growth. It has been known 
to produce soiling food in five to six weeks from the date 
of sowing and every few weeks subsequently, until 
the arrival of winter. But to grow thus rapidly the con- 
ditions for growth must be very favorable. It will en- 
dure any amount of forcing by way of irrigation and 
fertilization, the returns being usually proportionate to 
the attention thus bestowed upon it. It forms a dense 
turf while it lasts, but it is of course short lived. It 
is one of the earliest grasses in spring and one of the 
last to cease growing in the autumn. Some writers 
claim that it will endure both heat and drought well. 
Others say that it does not well endure drought and this 
view would seem to be correct. It cannot live through 
the cold winters of the northern states unless under 
very exceptional conditions. 



ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 285 

It is quite palatable, even more so, it is thought, than 
perennial rye grass. It is valuable both as pasture and 
hay, but is not adapted to either permanent pastures or 
meadows. Its highest use is in furnishing soiling food 
for dairy cows and other stock. Under some condi- 
tions a sufficient area of this grass would furnish soil- 
ing food during all the season of growth. In this re- 
spect it is probably only rivalled by alfalfa. In nutri- 
tion, Italian rye grass does not stand so high as some 
other grasses. 

Distribution. — Italian rye grass is native to Europe. 
In Lombardy it is thought its cultivation first began 
many years ago, and more especially in the irrigated 
districts of that country. It has been cultivated in 
France for at least a hundred years, and in England 
and Scotland for more than half a century. For sev- 
eral decades it has been tried in some parts of the Unit- 
ed States. Notwithstanding, its cultivation has not be- 
come very general in any section of the country. 

It has been claimed that it is equally well suited to 
all the climates of Europe. This claim is somewhat 
extravagant, as it will not endure extreme cold. It 
succeeds best in moist equable temperatures, hence the 
best results should be obtained from growing it, the 
soil conditions being correct, in the Central North At- 
lantic states and in those of the Pacific coast north- 
ward. 

In the United States good crops of Italian rye grass 
may be grown on suitable soils in nearly every state in 
the Union, but in the southwestern states and in the 
Rocky Mountain states far northward, it would be nee- 



286 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

essary to irrigate to grow it successfully, unless on the 
higher bench lands adjacent to the mountains. In the 
northern states from Montana eastward, it must, as 
a rule, be grown for what it will produce in one season, 
as in these it will succumb to the cold in winter. In 
the southern states it will endure longer. But it should 
render the best service North or South when grown for 
what it will produce in one season, as it so frequently 
succumbs to the cold of winter. It should render best 
service North or South where it can be grown under 
irrigation and to provide soiling food. 

This grass could doubtless be grown in Ontario and 
Quebec, but could not be expected to endure the cold 
of winter in these Provinces of Canada. It is not like- 
ly to prove a marked success in the maritime provinces 
of that country, or on the western prairies, but it ought 
to succeed at least reasonably well in British Columbia. 

Soils. — Italian rye grass will grow well on a va- 
riety of soils. Being a gross feeding plant and a rapid 
grower, it does best on lands rich in the ingredients that 
promote growth and in a mechanical condition favor- 
able to the same. It will grow well, therefore, on moist 
alluvial and calcareous loams or marls, on moist rich 
loamy sands, on clays of medium tenacity, or on slough 
lands that have been drained and that are not too peaty 
in character. It will not grow so well on tenacious 
clays, nor will it give very good results on dry soils 
or worn lands of any kind, or on wet soils, notwith- 
standing that it is so well fitted for being grown under 
irrigation. It would not be easy to make land too rich 
for growing this grass at its best. 



ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 287 

Preparing the Soil: — The preparation of the soil for 
this grass is much the same as for orchard grass (see p. 
138.) It is particularly essential that the seed bed shall 
be moist or the rapid growth expected from the grass 
will not be forthcoming. In order to accomplish this 
considerable labor may sometimes be necessary when 
preparing the seed bed for being sown in a dry autumn. 

Sowing: — In the Northern States and in Canada, 
the seed of Italian rye grass must be sown in the 
spring, otherwise the young plants will in many in- 
stances perish in the winter. In order to make the 
most of the one season's growth, it should of course be 
sown in the early spring; in the Southern States, 
after the autumn rains begin to fall, from August on- 
ward. It is then ready for cutting or pasturing early 
the following spring. October is a favorite • month in 
which to sow. It is commonly sown by hand and is 
seldom sown in mixtures. 

There would not seem to be any advantage from sow- 
ing it in mixtures of any of the winter cereals. The 
sand vetch would answer better, as the food would then 
be in better balance, and still better probably to sow 
with crimson clover, as the two plants would be ready 
for the first cutting about the same time. It is not ad- 
visable to sow the seed along with other grass seeds to 
make permanent pasture as it is short lived, and, in 
dying, would for the time being make vacancies in the 
pasture. But there may be conditions when it would 
be advisable to sow it for temporary pasture with a view 
to tide over, for the time being, a shortage in pasture. 

The seed weighs IS to 22 pounds to the bushel. The 



288 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

amount to sow should be varied with the soil and the use 
that is to be made of the food. Thick sowing is neces- 
sary on very rich soils where growth fine in character is 
wanted. The amounts of seed mentioned as the proper 
amounts to sow, run all the way from 20 to 50 pounds 
per acre, but, in the judgment of the author, from 20 
to 30 pounds should be sufficient. When sown with 
crimson clover, 10 pounds each of the rye grass and 
clover under average conditions would be proper 
amounts to sow. 

Pasturing. — Although as previously intimated, Ital- 
ian rye grass is not valuable as permanent pasture, 
it furnishes excellent temporary grazing. When de- 
voted to such use, however, it should be kept well grazed 
to prevent the plants from reaching the earing stage, as 
like other grass pastures they will then produce more 
and better grazing. In the far South it will produce 
winter grazing at a time when both Johnson grass and 
Bermuda grass are dormant. The color of the butter 
made from the milk of cows grazed on it has been 
praised. Because of its great power to take up fertiliz- 
ers quickly, its growth may be stimulated by applying 
certain of these, as may be desired, either when grazing 
this grass or growing it for hay. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Owing to the rapidity with 
which Italian rye grass grows, it may be made to pro- 
duce two or more cuttings a year of hay and several 
cuttings of soiling food. When irrigated, the water 
should be applied at once after each cutting. It is then 
also that liquid manures and other forcing fertilizers 
ought to be applied. This is frequently done in Great 



ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 289 

Britain and also in some countries on the continent. 
It should be cut for hay when coming nicely into 
bloom and for soiling food after it has made sufficient 
growth to make it worth while cutting it. In Louisiana 
it has been cut for hay as early as April. And in some 
parts of the South it has been cut for soiling food in 
December, from seed sown earlier in the autumn. Un- 
der favorable conditions several tons of cured hay are 
harvested per acre. The mode of harvesting for hay 
is about the same as would be suitable for timothy 
(see p. 72). 

Securing Seed. — This grass, like perennial rye grass, 
seeds freely. A seed crop and one hay crop at least 
should be obtained the same season, and also a seed 
crop and more than one soiling crop. Whether seed 
should be taken from the first or second cutting should 
depend on conditions snch as relate to c imate and 
growth. The aim should be to have the seed crop ma- 
ture when the weather is usually favorable for harvest- 
ing the same. It should also be taken from that cut- 
ting for the season in which is found fullness of growth 
without excessive rankness. The seed may be harvest- 
ed with the binder, dried sufficiently in long shocks and 
threshed with an ordinary grain thresher. The yield 
of seed from an ordinary crop should be not less than 
20 bushels per acre. The seed is grown to some ex- 
tent in the counties of Polk, Benton and Del 'Norte, 
California. 

Renewing. — It would seem possible to renew this 
grass by scattering seed over the sod every year or every 
second year, at a suitable season and harrowing it care- 
Grasses — 19. 



290 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

fully. But it is questionable if, as a rule, such re- 
newal would be profitable, as after a time, the fertility 
of the soil would be much depleted unless heavily fer- 
tilized, and its mechanical condition would become such 
as to prove less favorable to abundant production than 
if the seed were sown on newly ploughed ground and in 
proper rotation. Sowing afresh, therefore, on properly 
prepared land is preferable to renewing. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS GRASSES. 

In this chapter will be discussed several grasses, each 
of which is possessed of more or less value under cul- 
tivation. Wire grass (Carex vulpinoidea) is placed i\t 
the head of the list, because of its great value, but recent- 
ly discovered by the manufacturer. Then follows Texas 
blue grass which promises much to the farmers of the 
South in furnishing winter grazing. After these come 
certain grasses which have been found of more or less 
value to agriculturists in various parts of the country, 
but which are not so generally grown, as nearly all 
those previously discussed. These are Rough Stalked 
Meadow grass, Fowl Meadow grass, Rescue grass, 
Sheep's Fescue, Carpet grass, Velvet grass and Aus- 
tralian Saltbush. Lastly, the discussion of those grasses 
is taken up which give promise of considerable value 
under cultivation and vet the degree of that value has 
not been demonstrated through cultivating them. But 
two are included in the list, viz., Blue Joint (Cala- 
ma,grostis canadensis) and Blue Grama (Bouteloua 
oligostachya) . 

WIEE GRASS. 

Wire grass (Carex vulpinoidea) is a grass, the 
growth of which is confined to marshes. It is not to 
be confounded with various other grasses, which grow 



292 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

on dry soils and. which are frequently designated wire 
grass, as for instance Kentucky bine grass (Poa pra- 
/cnsis). Wire grass is so named, doubtless, from the 
tough character of the stems, so tough that they resist 
distension in a marked degree without breaking. 

This grass is a perennial, which grows to the height 
of about two feet generally. Usually much of the 
growth is made while the soil, which produces it, is yet 
covered with water for a short distance above the sur- 
face. The water gradually subsides as the season ad- 
vances and has entirely disappeared from the surface 
by the time that the grass is ready for being harvested. 
The stems are relatively numerous. The panicles pro- 
duce seed if the spring should happen to be so dry as 
to stunt the grass in its growth ; but in ordinary sea- 
sons and under conditions which favor vigorous growth, 
it is said that it does not produce seed. It has a creep- 
ing root-stock and the roots form so strong a turf that 
heavy loads can be driven across wire grass meadows, 
wdiich rest upon a cushion of miry peat oftentimes 
several feet deep. 

This grass does not begin to grow until the frost 
leaves the ground for some distance below the surface ; 
but it grows rapidly in the late spring and early sum- 
mer; and is ready for being harvested in July. It re- 
tains its greenness for several weeks ; hence, the sea- 
son of harvesting is frequently prolonged. It is prac- 
tically useless as food for live stock, owing to the woody 
character of the stems. It has been used to some ex- 
tent by upholsterers, but now it is chiefly used in the 
manufacture of binder twine, furniture, mats, rngs and 



WIRE GRASS. 293 

articles of clothing, all of which are enduring. The ar- 
ticles made from it are not only useful, but they are 
unique and attractive ; even ladies' hats are now being 
manufactured from this material. 

Distribution. — Wire grass is native to America. 
While more or less of it is found in various states and 
provinces, the chief centres of production at the present 
time are the numerous and large marshes of Northern 
Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin and Manitoba in Can- 
ada. The area of this grass is decreasing in some quar- 
ters with the gradual recession of the waters of the 
marshes. In others it is increasing as in the gradual 
lowering of the waters of lakes with sedgy shores. 

Soils. — This grass grows only in peat soils, or, more 
properly in marshes or bogs, in which the peat is de- 
cayed more or less but only on and near the surface. It 
is essential to the life of this grass that a certain de- 
gree of watery saturation shall be preserved during 
much of the year; and yet the water should not rise 
much above the surface of the ground, for anv consid- 

O / t,' 

erable length of time or the grass would perish. On 
the other hand where too little water is present and 
for too short a portion of the year, wire grass will give 
way to other forms of grass, possessed of higher food 
value. 

Place in the Rotation. — Of course, wire grass is not 
a rotation plant, in the ordinary sense in which the 
term is used, and yet there is a sort of rotation in which 
nature has placed it. In the gradual evolution of the 
lower forms of plant life, it has a place between the 
mosses and bushes, which cover muskegs and marshes; 



294 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and the rushes and sedges which grow around the edges 
of certain lakes on the one hand, and the redtop and 
blue joint grasses on the other. 

Preparing the Soil. — While nature sows wire grass, 
the sowing can only prove effective where the conditions 
are favorable to the sowing of the grass. Where the 
watery saturation is excessive, as in muskegs or in cer- 
tain shallow lakes, the waters must be lowered by na- 
ture or by man. In settled states, recession in the 
waters advances with the advance of cultivation into 
lands not previously tilled, hence, the growths men- 
tioned, as preceding wire grass are gradually being sup- 
planted by the same. Particularly is this true of peat 
bottomed lakes. When the recession advances beyond a 
certain degree, the wire grass fails to be supplanted 
in turn by blue joint or redtop. These changes made 
by nature are slow. In many instances, it is possible 
to hasten them, as when the outlets of these watery sit- 
uations are of such a character that the waters may be 
in part drawn off. When thus lowered sufficiently, 
fire may be made to run over the surface of the mus- 
keg in the spring, while the frost is still near the sur- 
face to kill the tea bushes and burn the moss. If this 
were done in the dry autumn, the fire would burn down 
into the peat. With the bushes dead and the moss burn- 
ed, nature does the rest. Where she gets seed enoutrh 
to sow whole marshes so as to transform them into 
meadows in two or three seasons is in a sense one of the 
mysterious things. Equally mysterious is the source of 
the seed supply, which, under certain conditions, will 
transform a wire grass meadow, in a few seasons, into 



WIRE GRASS. 295 

one of blue joint or redtop. Something approximating 
to the above, is the preparation of soil, required for 
the introduction of wire grass. Where the grass has 
not been cut the previous year, it is necessary to burn 
it off with fire. This is best done in the spring while 
the frost is yet up to the surface of the ground. Dead 
grass amid the green crop would render the latter un- 
fit for manufacturing purposes. 

So icing. — From what has been said, it will be ap- 
parent that, up to the present, nature has been found 
sufficient to the task of sowing the seed ; the attempt 
by man to sow it has never probably been made; yet 
man has a duty to perform, where these meadows are 
to be made permanent. Attention must needs be given 
to the water supply and to the removal of the same. 
This cannot always be done, but in many instances, it 
can. Many of those wire grass meadows are found in 
lowlands, where shallow lakes abound. This makes 
it possible to lower the water so as to drain the meadow 
in getting it ready for harvesting; such draining is 
further facilitated by the presence of certain open 
ditches cut through the meadows where needed. It is 
also possible by damming up the outlet to flood the 
land sufficiently at certain seasons of the year, since in 
some of those meadows the fall is not more than one 
foot per mile. 

Pasturing. — Wire grass does not furnish good pas- 
ture. Live stock will not eat it, if they can get other 
grass, owing to its toughness and probably to its want 
of palatability. 

Harvesting. — The harvesting of wire grass begins 



296 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

early in July or as soon as the grass is fully headed 
out and it may be continued until the autumn, when 
necessary, but the late cut grass is not nearly so valu- 
able as that cut early. The cutting is done by self- 
rake reapers which leaves the grass in sheaves, where 
it dries on the ground. Men follow the reapers and 
straighten the sheaves for the "gleaners." When the 
grass is dry enough, the gleaners follow ; lift the sheaves 
from the ground and bind them. They are then drawn 
on wagons to hay sheds and are finally baled for ship- 
ment to the factory. The horses which do the work 
on the meadows are shod with bog shoes, and the wag- 
ons have wide tires. Late in the season, the grass is 
cut and bound with binders. 

Securing Seed. — No attempts have probably been 
made to secure the seed of wire grass and it is ques- 
tionable, if it will be necessary to give attention to the 
matter for many years, if indeed ever. The grass 
seems to require dwarfing or stunting in order to make 
it produce seed. The seed is triangular in outline, 
and ripens in July. It could most conveniently be 
gathered probably by the stripper but may be also 
harvested and threshed like the seed of other grain. 

Renewing. — The only sense in which it would seem 
possible to renew this grass, where it begins to fail 
would seem to be by regulating the water supply. As it 
is necessary to keep the grass practically free from other 
grasses, where redtop and blue joint come in around 
the edges of the meadow, the only practical way to re- 
move them would be to submerge them until they 
would vanish. There are also certain grasses of the 



TEXAS BLUE GRASS. 297 

sedgy order which grow amid the wire grass in the 
depressions. How to get rid of these is not easily ap- 
parent without lowering the water unduly for other 
portions of the meadow ; nor has it been determined 
how long a wire grass meadow can be maintained and 
whether the same can be mowed every year without in- 
terruption. It is probable, however, that with the 
proper regulation of the water supply, those meadoAvs 
may be rendered permanent for many years. 

It is fortunate that valuable uses have been found 
to which this grass has been put. The discovery is 
making highly productive thousands and tens of thou- 
sands of acres of peat lands that must otherwise have 
remained unproductive for many years. 

TEXAS BLUE GRASS. 

Texas blue grass (Poa arichnifera) might well be 
named the blue grass of the South, as it promises to 
do for much of the Southern country what blue grass 
has done for the North. As it becomes known it is 
more prized in the South, where, along with Ber- 
muda grass, it furnishes grazing practically all the 
year. 

This grass has considerable resemblance to Kentucky 
blue grass, not only in appearance, but also in its habit 
of growth. It is taller, however, the stems of the latter 
growing to the height of 1 to 3 feet. The leaves are long 
and slender. The panicles are 4 to 6 inches long and 
densely flowered. The roots are creeping. 

Texas blue grass is a hardy perennial and one that 
has a vigorous habit of growth. 



298 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

It grows quite vigorously during much of the win- 
ter in nearly all parts of the South. It has been 
stated that it has been known to grow 10 inches in 
as many days in Texas at that season. It blooms in 
April, or May according to the latitude. Even as 
far north as Tennessee, it will keep green and furnish 
grazing through all or nearly all the winter. It soon 
forms a dense turf which stands grazing well. Al- 
though the plants produce seed readily, the seed is woolly 
in character, hence it is not easily handled or sown. 
It is more easily propagated by means of root cuttings. 

It is much relished by all kinds of stock and stands 
grazing well, hence it is well adapted for permanent 
pasture. It will make food for hay, if cut in season, 
but its highest use is to provide winter pastures. After 
being cut for hay or grazed in spring, it pushes up 
readily when the fall rains come after the rest of sum- 
mer. 

It is the complement of blue grass in the South, a 
plant with nearly all the good qualities of the former 
and adapted to southern conditions. 

Contrasted with Kentucky blue grass, the Texas blue 
is taller and of stronger but coarser growth. The 
rhizomes are also larger and stronger. It stands more 
drought and heat than blue grass, and is even better 
fitted for winter grazing, but it will not stand low tem- 
peratures as well as the other. 

Distribution. — Texas blue grass is a southern grass. 
It is native to Texas and probably some other parts of 
the South. It is said that it was first brought into 
cultivation by Geo. H. Hogan of Texas. It has been 



r 



mi 



I 



; i 




w$m?j* 



Fig. 3«. 
TEXAS BLUE GRASS (/Va aricknifera) 

U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 



TEXAS BLUE GRASS. 299 

tried in all the states of the South and Southwest, and 
for all or nearly all of these it has much promise. 
It has been found hardy as far north as Ames, Iowa. 
In Kansas, it has given no little satisfaction 

It has not been fully determined as to how far north 
it may be grown with profit, but it would seem safe 
to say, that it would not be necessary to grow it where 
full crops of Kentucky blue grass can be grown, since 
the latter will doubtless be more valuable in its own 
proper field. 

Soils. — Texas blue grass will grow 7 on any good soil. 
It does best on alluvial soils, but all soils that will 
grow corn and cotton will grow this grass. It will 
also grow on worn lands, but it requires a longer time 
to establish it on these. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil is 
virtually the same as for Bermuda grass (see p. 119), 
especially when the root cuttings are planted. This 
means that it is possible to establish it on worn land, 
that is now growing such products as sage brush and 
sassafras. 

Sowing or Planting. — Texas blue grass is frequently 
sown, but owing to the woolly character of the seed it 
is not easily sown. It may be sown in the spring or 
the early autumn, preferably the latter, and with or 
without a nurse crop, but preferably with one, if the 
nurse crop is not too thickly sown. The woolliness of 
the seed makes it difficult to sow even by hand. It 
may be, however, that the improved seeder which is 
driven like a wheelbarrow will sow it all right and 



300 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

with ease to the sower. About 10 pounds of seed per 
acre ought to suffice. 

This grass can be established at least as quickly and 
even more surely by planting the divided roots. The 
preparation of the land and the planting of the roots 
may be done in much the same way as Bermuda grass 
is planted (see p. 120), but the root cuttings of the 
Texas blue grass should be planted closer because of 
the less power which it has to multiply rapidly. Two 
feet by one has been mentioned as a suitable distance, 
for planting the root cuttings. Whether it will an- 
swer best to sow it alone or in mixtures does not ap- 
pear to have been fully determined. Some have 
thought that by growing it along with Bermuda grass 
the two would furnish grazing all the year, but ex- 
periments with that aim in view have thus far not 
been markedly successful. . 

Pasturing. — This grass would seem to be especially 
well adapted to the growing of pasture in the South. 
In these, it will grow more rapidly than Kentucky 
blue grass and will produce much more grazing. It 
has been claimed, that in this respect, it is not sur- 
passed by any other grass, in the South. It grows 
early, and although it does not grow quickly in dry 
summer weather, it comes on at once after the autumn 
rains begin to fall, and grows through much or all of 
the winter, accordng to the locality, thus furnishing 
winter forage freely. It keeps green through nearly 
all the year, even as far north as Tennessee. It forms 
a thick turf and stands grazing well. It is particularly 



ROUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS. 301 

well adapted for permanent pastures in its own par- 
ticular domain. 

Harvesting for Hay. — This grass, being a mncli 
si ponger grower than Kentucky blue grass, furnishes 
more hav. It should be cut like other grasses when 
in bloom. It may be harvested the same as timothy. 

Securing Seed. — This grass, like the Kentucky, seeds 
freely and may be harvested with the binder. 

Renewing. — Although information is not plentiful 
with reference to this question, it would seem to be 
quite practicable to renew this grass by disking it 
once or twice or oftener when it becomes sodbound 
and applying fertilizer. Breaking up the roots with 
the plow as in renewing Bermuda grass would be too 
severe treatment for Texas blue grass unless done with 
care and skill. 

ROUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS. 

Rough Stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis) is also 
known by the names Rough meadow grass, Roughish 
meadow grass, Green grass, Common meadow grass 
and Orchiston grass. The designation Bough Stalked 
is given to it because of the roughness of the stems 
below the panicle. The name Orchiston grass has 
been given to it because of its abundance in the grass 
lands of Orchiston near Salisbury, England. 

This grass is closely related to Kentucky blue grass, 
but it is taller and more slender and has a rougher 
stem. The root is also fibrous, whereas that of June 
grass is creeping. It is a perennial and grows to the 
height of 1 to 3 feet. The stems are decumbent at 



302 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the base. The leaves are numerous, flat, and from 
3 to 6 inches long. The panicle is open and resem- 
bles a narrow pyramid in form. It is quite open and 
from 3 to 8 inches long. 

It is best adapted to moist conditions. It grows 
well amid the shade and protection furnished by other 
glasses, produces a sweet and fairly nutritious hay, 
and is greatly relished both as hay or as pasture by 
horses, cattle or sheep. In Britain, it is much pre- 
ferred to June grass, although it is considerably later 
in its habit of growth. It multiplies only by means 
of the seed, hence in a few years it dies out, even in 
permanent pastures. 

Distribution. — This grass is found in Europe, "North 
Africa and Siberia. It has been introduced into Amer- 
ica. It is said that it has been longer cultivated than 
any other poa and the statement is probably true. It 
is still in high favor in England and also on the Con- 
tinent. 

Rough stalked meadow grass prefers a moist and 
temperate climate. It has not been very extensively 
grown in this country, but where tried under suitable 
conditions luis proved itself to be a useful grass. On 
low lands, it should do well from Lake Superior to the 
Gulf of Mexico. The little attention that has been 
given to its introduction in the United States is owing 
in part at least to the difficulty of obtaining good seed 
and to the high price of the same. 

Soils. — Rough stalked meadow grass, like redtop, is 
adapted to soils low and moist. This does not mean that 
it will not give returns on productive upland or prai- 



ROUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS. 303 

rie soils, but that the best returns will be obtained from 
moist humus soils of the slough order from which the 
surface water has been sufficiently removed. It should 
not be sown on clayey, gravelly or sandy knolls. 

Place in the Rotation. — Rough stalked meadow grass, 
like redtop, is not adapted to short rotations. Much 
of what has been said of the place for redtop in the 
rotation will also apply to this grass. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil 
for rough stalked meadow grass is about the same as 
for redtop. (See p. 155.) 

Sowing. — The best time to sow rough stalked mea- 
dow grass in the North is the early spring, and in the 
South, the early autumn, providing enough of moist- 
ure is in the soil. It may be sown by hand or with 
the improved seed sower that is wheeled over the ground. 
The seed is not easily sown by hand, owing to its woolly 
character. It proves more satisfactory when grown in 
mixtures. It may be profitably sown with orchard 
grass, redtop, fowl meadow grass and timothy, when 
providing pasture. In providing hay, orchard grass 
should be omitted as it ripens considerably earlier than 
the other grasses named. The most suitable of these 
for sowing in conjunction with rough stalked meadow 
grass are redtop and fowl meadow grass. If sown 
along with Kentucky blue grass, the latter will in time 
crowd it out. The yields of hay will be much in- 
creased by sowing rough stalked meadow grass along 
with other varieties that are grown under like condi- 
tions. This grass has also been recommended for sow- 
ing in certain low lying woodland pastures. 
Grasses — 20. 



304 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

The seed weighs 14 pounds to the bushel. When 
sown alone one bushel ought to suffice ; when sown with 
other grass, the amount of seed required will be in- 
fluenced by the number of the grasses sown, and by 
the use that is to be made of them, also by adaptation 
in soils. In mixtures it will seldom be necessary to 
sow more than 7 pounds per acre and frequently much 
less than this amount will suffice. 

Pasturing. — While this grass stands pasturing rea- 
sonably well for a season, close grazing will injure it 
in time, especially in warm situations. The after- 
math is said to be more nutritious than the hay. 

Harvesting for Hay. — The hay is cut and harvest- 
ed in about the same way as timothy. (See p. 72.) The 
yields are heavy on good soils, and it has been said are 
always greatest in mixtures. It has been claimed that 
in England it will yield more than rye grass, but this 
statement will probably apply only to certain locali- 
ties. Testimony is agreed as to the high quality of 
the hay. 

Securing Seed. — As the seed of rough talked mead- 
ow grass is very largely if not entirely imported, 
American methods of saving it cannot be given. It 
would seem reasonable, however, to suppose that it 
could be saved by much the same plan as Kentucky 
blue grass. (Seep. 101.) 

Renewing. — When this grass fails, it will probably be 
found better to re-sow than to try renewal by adding 
seed from time to time, but to this there may be some 
exceptions. 



FOWL MEADOW GRASS. 305 

FOWL MEADOW GTRASS. 

Fowl meadow grass (Poa serotina) belongs to the 
same genus as Kentucky blue grass. It is also called 
False redtop, Duck grass and Swamp wire grass. Be- 
cause it sends forth flower stems from the lower joints 
after the main panicle has bloomed the term serotina, 
ever-flowering, has been applied to it. It is said to 
have been introduced into a low meadow near Dedham, 
Massachusetts, by wild ducks and other water fowl, hence 
the name Fowl Meadow grass. 

The stems of this grass are somewhat weak, hence 
they are considerably given to lodge. They grow from 
2 to 3 feet high. The leaves are narrow, smooth and 
plentiful. The head is from 6 to 14 inches long and 
is erect and spreading, when in bloom but more or less 
contracted and drooping, when. ripe. The roots are 
slightly creeping. Fowl meadow grass is perennial. It 
is nutritious, makes excellent hay and also yields abun- 
dantly on suitable soils. The hay is highly palatable to 
stock, but owing to its softness is not considered quite 
equal to timothy for horses, nor does it furnish quite 
so marketable a hay as timothy. It is somewhat late 
coming into flower and does not grow much aftermath. 
Its highest use is for being grown along with certain 
other grasses on low lands for making hay. 

Distribution. — Fowl meadow grass is native to Eu- 
rope and also to many parts of America. It has been 
grown under cultivation in New England for more 
than one hundred and fifty years. Jared Elliott wrote 
commendingly about it in 1749, when contrasting its 
merits with those of timothy. It forms a considera- 



306 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ble proportion of the hay crop in Xew England, but 
does not appear to he cultivated to any very great ex- 
tent in other states although indigenous to several of 
these. In the southern states, it grows well on snit- 
ahle soils, but has not been very extensively tried on 
these. On low lands in the central states, more atten- 
tion should be given to growing this grass in mixtures 
than has heretofore been accorded to it. In Ontario 
also and other parts of Eastern Canada, the grass grows 
in good form. Its cultivation in Europe does not ap- 
pear to have been greatly successful. 

Soil. — Soils well supplied with humus are best adapt- 
ed to the growth of this grass. It will even succeed 
in slough lands, over-moist for some other grasses. It 
succeeds admirably on bottom and intervale lands that 
are occasionally overflowed, and yet it does not stand 
submergence for any considerable period, especially 
when the weather is warm. But it will succeed in 
sands too wet for the ordinary processes of comforta- 
ble tillage. It will also grow well on uplands which 
consist of moist warm soil. It should not be sown on 
dry soils, on stiff hard clays, or on sandy or gravelly 
soils. 

Place in the Rotation. — This grass is not really a 
rotation grass, but like redtop it may be made such 
under certain conditions. (See p. 154.) Its highest 
adaptation is found in meadows of some permanency. 
When grown in bottom lands that are readily tillable, 
it may come after any crop to which clean tillage has 
been given, as corn or potatoes, and may be followed 
by any crop or succession of crops adapted to such 



FOWL MEADOW GRASS. 307 

lands and especially to such as flourish best on plenti- 
ful supplies of humus. A hay meadow of this grass 
will last for many years, if properly managed. 

Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
fowl meadow grass is much the same as for redtop. 
(See p. 155.) It may also be introduced into lowlands 
congenial to its growth by sowing the seed without 
ploughing the land, but such introduction will of neces- 
sity not be rapid. 

Sowing. — This grass may be best sown in the early 
spring in the northern states and Canada, but in the 
southern states it would doubtless be better sown in 
the autumn. It may be sown alone, or what is better 
in the mixtures that have adaptation for lowlands, as, 
for instance, along with timothy or redtop when sown 
for hay and along with one or both of these when sown 
for pasture with blue grass added. Alsike clover may 
also be added for both uses, but alsike and fowl mead- 
ow grass would not go well together for making hay, 
except with some stifTer grass as timothy to support 
them. The seed is usually sown by hand and covered 
with a light harrow. It weighs 12 to 14 pounds per 
bushel, but when very well cleaned weighs 19 or 20 
pounds. When sown alone not less than 2 bushels of 
seed should be used. When sown along with other 
grasses the amount will of course vary with the kind 
and proportions of the other grasses sown. 

Pasturing. — From spring until the early autumn 
fowl meadow grass furnishes good grazing, but after 
a hay crop the aftermath is not abundant. As a pas- 



308 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ture grass it serves a better purpose in mixtures than 
alone. 

Harvesting for Hay. — In the northern states fowl 
meadow grass blossoms in July and August. It is 
best cut when in flower. But if not harvested at that 
time, the stems fall down and especially from the lower 
joints other flower stems are sent up. Because of this 
habit of growth the grass suffers little through deferred 
cutting. In fact it has been claimed that the highest 
production in weight and nutrition is obtained for the 
hay that is cut late. It may be cut any time from July 
to October and is harvested in the same way as tim- 
othy, but will probably require more time on an aver- 
age to cure because of its softness. Jared Elliott 
claimed that it would make better hay for shipping 
than timothy but the testimony of the intervening years 
has demonstrated that the opposite is true. 

Securing Seed. — It is not so easy to secure the seed 
of this grass as of some others, owing to the lodging 
habit which characterizes it. To cut it with the binder 
set high would seem to be one of the best ways of cut- 
ting the grass for seed, but the author cannot cite any 
instance based on actual experience in which the work 
has been done in this way. The part left uncut could 
then be pastured or even cut for hay. Much care is 
required in threshing and cleaning the seed. Average 
yields may be set down at 6 to 7 bushels per acre. As it 
is not easy to distinguish the seed from that of some 
other varieties of grass, it is much adulterated. That is 
one reason why it, and several other more or less useful 
grasses, are not sown to a greater extent than they are. 



RESCUE GRASS. 209 

Nevertheless, when the cultivation of a grass popular 
a century and a half ago does not extend greatly, the 
conclusion would seem to be correct, that the grasses 
more generally cultivated stand higher in the popular 
estimate. 

Renewing. — A grass that produces seed during so 
large a portion of the season has no little power to 
re-seed the soil on which it grows if not grazed too 
closely. When thus treated it should endure for a 
long time. 

RESCUE GRASS. 

Rescue grass (Bromus unoiloides) is also known by 
the names of Schraeder grass, Australian grass and 
Arctic grass. It is closely allied to Chess or Cheat 
(Bromus secalinus). A grass which grows vigorously 
even under hard conditions and which produces good 
hay and pasture, but which when once introduced is 
likely to appear in future grain crops grown on the 
same land. But the hazard is not so great that res- 
cue grass will remain in the land where it was grown. 
This grass grows erectly and from 1 to 3 feet high. 
It produces an abundance of leaves. The panicles are 
large, much branched, loose and nodding. They pre- 
sent a beautiful appearance as they sway to and fro in 
the wind. The plants tiller much under favorable 
conditions of growth. The roots are fibrous. The 
whole plant bears considerable resemblance to Bromus 
secalinus, but it is probably more leafy, and hence so 
far a better pasture grass. The seeds resemble those 
of the former so closely that they are frequently sold 
under the name of rescue grass. 



310 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Rescue grass is an annual, but if eaten closely it 
will live for a longer period than one year, in some 
instances for 2 or 3 years. It is essentially a winter 
grass and should usually be sown for the purpose of 
providing winter pasture. Although it does not grow 
rapidly at first, it does later, hence, in the far South, 
it may be made to furnish grazing in January and 
February, and later may produce a crop of hay. It 
matures in March and April in Texas. It furnishes 
good grazing and good hay, but if allowed to go to 
seed the seeds will germinate later and appear in the 
next crop. 

Distribution. — Rescue grass is said to be a native 
of South America. It has been grown to some extent 
in all the states of the South, but has been grown to 
a greater extent in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama 
and Georgia than in the other states. It will endure 
the cold of winter in latitudes considerably higher, but 
there would seem to be no good reasons for growing 
the plant where it will not provide grazing in winter. 

Soil. — This grass will grow best of course in rich 
strong soils, but it will grow, though more feebly, in 
poor and thin soils. If grown on the latter, it should 
be stimulated by liberal fertilizing. 

Place i?i the Rotation. — Rescue grass being essen- 
tially an annual and a winter grass may come any- 
where in the rotation, whether it be a long or a short 
one. When winter grazing is much desired, it may 
be grown from year to year, alternating with cow peas. 
The latter fertilizes the soil for the rescue grass. and, 
if ploughed under, will furnish a supply of humus. 




Fig. 17. 

RESCUE GRASS (Browns unoiloides). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



RESCUE GRASS. 311 

Preparing the Soil. — As the seed of rescue grass 
should be sown in the autumn, the ground may be pre- 
pared any time previously during the summer. After 
winter crops, ploughing aud subsequently pulverizing 
will make a timely and suitable seed bed. But if any 
considerable amount of the seed is allowed to drop 
in the pastures, and if some such crop as cow peas 
is made to follow the seed which has fallen, it will 
germinate in the autumn and produce grazing or hay 
and, in some instances, both if desired. 

Sowing. — Rescue grass is best sown in the autumn. 
Ordinarily it is not sown until the fall rains come, as 
it does not germinate earlier, hence it is commonly 
sown in September or October. But in some seasons 
it starts earlier. In other seasons it will not start un- 
til December or January. Moisture and reasonably 
cool weather are two of the essentials necessary to the 
successful growth of rescue grass. 

It is commonly sown alone, but may be sown along 
with crimson clover and certain other plants. When 
sown alone about 30 pounds of seed will suffice per 
acre. If sown with other plants the amount of seed 
should be correspondingly reduced. 

Pasturing. — While this crop furnishes excellent win- 
ter grazing, it would not be correct to claim that it will 
furnish more grazing in the aggregate than winter oats, 
but it has been claimed that it has greater power to 
furnish grazing in cool weather, as for instance, in Jan- 
uary and February, when such grazing is most needed. 
It is then especially serviceable in providing food for 
brood mares with autumn foals, milch cows, ewes with 



312 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

young lambs, calves and brood sows. In some loose 
soils, the stock grazing upon it will to some extent 
pull it out of the soil. 

It is possible to grow rescue grass for pasture for suc- 
cessive years on the same land and with undiminished 
yields, by simply allowing some of the seed to drop in 
the pasture, and then ploughing and enriching the land 
in early summer by applying manure or artificial fer- 
tilizer, or by growing cow peas as already intimated. 
This plan may be commendable when winter grazing 
is wanted, located quite near to the buildings. 

Harvesting for Hay. — As already intimated, rescue 
grass may be grazed in the winter and then allowed 
to grow hay or mature seed later. The hay crop in 
Texas and Louisiana from this grass is ready for be- 
ing harvested in March or April. It is cut and cured 
like orchard grass. (See page 143.) The hay is not 
difficult to cure. The proper season for cutting is 
that of early bloom. While this grass makes good hay, 
it is in no way superior to that made from winter 
oats, and some are of the opinion that the average 
yields are not equal to those obtained from oats. Good 
yields of hay may be set down at 2 tons per acre, but on 
good bottom lands the yield will be considerably larger. 

Securing Seed. — It is not difficult to secure seed from 
this grass. When ripe it may be cut with the binder 
and threshed and cleaned like wheat. The yield may 
be set down as varying from 20 to 35 bushels per acre. 
The seed weighs 14 pounds per bushel. 

Renewing. — From what has been said above it will 
be apparent that the renewal of this grass may be 



SHEEP'S FESCUE. 313 

brought about by simply allowing the seed to drop 
in the pastures. There is the objection to this, how- 
ever, that the seed may remain ungerminated in the soil 
and grow in succeeding crops. Because of this, some 
writers advise against the sowing of rescue grass for 
any purpose and the advice should certainly be heeded 
by the careless farmer. Those who cultivate carefully, 
however, should have but little to fear from the intro- 
duction of this grass upon their farms. 

sheep's fescue. 

Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina) is a low growing 
grass which has the habit of bunching in dense tufts. 
The leaves are short, very fine, slender, and almost 
bristle-like in their erection, and not infrequently are 
characterized by a grayish color, tinged with red. The 
stems are slender, not particularly numerous, and grow 
from 6 to 12 inches high, but usually do not attain 
a height of more than 8 inches. The heads are short 
and slender, somewhat one-sided, and they spread more 
or less when in flower. The roots are fibrous. The 
extent to which sheep have been grazed on it has doubt- 
less given to it the name Sheep's Fescue. 

There are several varieties of this plant which bear 
no little resemblance to one another. One of the best 
of these is Hard Fescue (Festuca durinscula). The 
latter is taller than Sheep's Fescue, less densely tufted 
and equally if not even more hardy. 

Sheep's Fescue is a perennial. It has much per- 
manency, more particularly in lands where the growth 
is not overshadowed by larger plants. It is very hardy. 



314 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Though too small to grow as hay, it has heen found 
quite useful under some conditions in providing pas- 
ture for sheep and cattle, both of which are very fond 
of it. It is also highly nutritious. In America, it 
has not been much introduced into cultivation; but it 
may be advisable to sow it under some conditions. 

Distribution. — This grass is probably native to Eu- 
rope, Asia and North America. It has rendered much 
service in providing grazing on the arid plains of Asia. 
It will grow in many sections of the United States and 
Canada, and, where the conditions are hard, may fre- 
quently be made to render considerable service in fur- 
nishing pasture. It has special adaptation to Rocky 
mountain areas. Being extremely hardy, it is on the 
whole better adapted to northern than to southern 
conditions. Its chief value lies in furnishing pas- 
ture on dry soils where better grasses refuse to grow. 
It has much power to grow on dry, sandy or gravelly 
soils, on clay hills and on rocky mountain slopes with 
but a thin covering of earth. 

Place in the Rotation. — Sheep's Fescue is not a ro- 
tation crop, since it is not commonly sown on prepared 
land; but of course it may be grown in rotations in 
pastures of more or less permanency. 

Preparing the Soil. — This grass is indigenous to 
many sections. In these the question of soil prepara- 
tion and of sowing is not greatly important. In such 
areas, the grass usually grows, as it were, spontane- 
ously, and if not kept grazed too closely will scatter 
the seeds so as to thicken the grazing. Scattering seed 
on unbroken land, which is not covered with a close 




Fig. 18. 

SHEEP'S FESCUE {Festuca ovina). 

Tennessee Experiment Station. 



SHEEP'S FESCUE. 317 

grass turf, will usually result in establishing the grass 
in ^the same. 

Sowing. — The seed may be sown in the spring or 
in the autumn. When sown on unbroken lands, it is 
usually sown alone. But it is also sown sometimes 
with mixtures intended for permanent pastures, and 
in making lawns. If sown alone to make a lawn, 
seed would be required at the rate of 2 bushels per 
acre. To form a dense pasture quickly of Sheep's 
Fescue alone, would call for about the same amount 
of seed. When sown in permanent mixtures, it is 
not usual to sow large quantities of seed, usually not 
more than 3 or 4 pounds per acre ; but there may be 
instances in which it would be advisable to sow much 
larger quantities of seed. 

Pasturing. — This grass well withstands close and 
prolonged pasturing. It has much power to retain 
its hold upon the soil, and when grown amid other 
pasture grasses helps to form a dense turf. In the 
Highlands of Scotland, this grass has helped to furnish 
grazing for sheep for centuries. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Sheep's Fescue is seldom or 
never harvested for hay under American conditions. 
The yields in the form of hay are usually so much 
less than those of some other hay grass grown in the 
locality, that hay is seldom sought from the latter. 
But of course it can be cut for hay. When so cut it 
must be handled with many tined forks, because of the 
shortness and fineness of the product. 

Securing Seed. — The supply of seed is all or nearly 
all imported. The grass seeds freely in proportion to 
Grasses — 21. 



318 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the number of the seed heads. And seed could of course 
be grown under American conditions, but whether its 
growth would be highly profitable at the present time 
is questionable, owing to the limited demand for the 
seed. In the latitude of Xew England, the seed ma- 
tures in July. There is probably no way of harvest- 
ing it, that will prove so satisfactory as gathering the 
seed with the stripper. It weighs 12 to 14 pounds 
per bushel. The yields are not very large as the seed 
heads are not very numerous relatively. 

Renewing. — To renew this grass means the appli- 
cation of more seed. This may be done in pastures 
by simply allowing some of the seed to ripen and be- 
come strewn with the wind, or by adding some more 
seed at the proper season or seasons. In the absence 
of positive experience, it will probably be found that 
sowing soon after the seed matures in the summer or 
in the quite early spring, will secure the end sought. 

For Lawns. — Sheep's [Fescue has been much used 
for lawns under certain conditions. When thickly set 
it makes an attractive lawn, and has the merit of grow- 
ing slowly, thus lessening the number of the cuttings 
required, but a lawn made of this grass is not darkly 
green as other grass lawns. This, however, has the 
charm of novelty in addition to the dense character of 
the sward. 

CARPET GRASS. 

Carpet grass . (Paspalum platycavle) is sometimes 
called Louisiana grass. It is so named doubtless for 
the reason that it is native to Louisiana, and has been 
grown there with considerable success. The specifie 



CARPET GRASS. 319 

name means flat stem, so given because of the flatness 
of the stems and leaves. It is also called Blanket grass, 
for the reason probably that it forms a close dense 
covering which spreads over the earth like a blanket. 
The softness and denseness of the covering is like that 
furnished by a carpet, hence the name commonly ap- 
plied to it. 

This grass is extensively creeping in its habit of 
growth. It is a perennial. The steins near the groin id 
are broad and thin. The leaves are not only broad, 
but short and bluntlike. The stems lie almost on the 
ground and frequently root at the nodes. From these 
they send up many leafy or flower bearing branches 
from 5 to 25 inches high, but more commonly not 
more than 12 inches. These are naked and at the apex 
nearly always divide into 2 or 3 small spikes or flower 
bearing branches from 1 to 2 inches long. The creep- 
ing stems spread rapidly and soon form a dense sod, 
which crowds out other plants. It is evergreen at the 
far South. It can well withstand protracted drought. 
It forms a very dense sod and has been found helpful 
in binding soils that wash. 

It is much relished by live stock and makes good 
hay, but, owing to its strongly creeping habit of growth 
has to be cut low. It is not so nutritions as Bermuda 
grass. 

Distribution. — Carpet grass is now grown more or 
less in all the southern states, but it grows at its best 
in those which border on the Gulf. It will also grow 
in the southwestern states in the presence of enough 
of rainfall. It will also grow as far north as the north- 



320 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ern boundary of Tennessee, but will succumb to severe 
winters in portions of the state. There is no useful 
pi ace for it further north than the state named. 

Soils. — This grass will grow in almost any kind of 
soil, but, like every other variety, it grows best in good 
soils. However, its ability to grow in soils so light 
that they wash and to bind them speaks well for its 
growing powers. 

Place in the Rotation. — Since carpet grass is per- 
ennial in its habit of growth, it is not really a rotation 
plant when grown for permanent pasture, but of course 
it may be made such by breaking up the sod. Since, 
however, it takes some time to form a sod, it is not 
considered good practice to make the rotations short. 
It is adapted to the same rotation as Bermuda grass. 
(See p. US.) But, unlike Bermuda grass, it is easily 
removed from the soil. Since it is easily injured by 
the shade of stronger plants, it can be best started in 
clean soil. It is not adapted to woodlands. 

Preparing the Soil. — Much that has been said about 
preparing the soil for Bermuda grass will also apply 
to carpet grass. (See p. 119.) But on many of the 
soils of the South it is able to establish itself without 
covering. 

Sowing or Planting. — This grass is propagated by 
means of the seed and also by means of root cuttings, 
much of what has been said about the propagation of 
Bermuda grass will also apply to carpet grass. (See 
p. 120.) When the seed is good, it is not necessary 
to sow it thickly because of the ability of the grass to 
spread and thicken in the soil. But it would be easily 



CARPET GRASS. 321 

possible to carry the idea of thin seeding too far. It 
should not be planted in conjunction with Bermuda 
grass, as it has a tendency to crowd out the former, 
which is the more valuable. 

Pasturing. — Although carpet grass furnishes good 
grazing it ought to be grazed rather closely, in order 
to get the most that can be gained from it. This is 
necessary because of the creeping habit of the growth. 
It grows earlier in the season than Bermuda and also 
later, consequently it is better adapted for winter 
grazing. 

Harvesting for Hay. — For the same reason that it 
is necessary to graze carpet grass closely, it is also 
necessary to mow closely for hay. The hay is not 
equal to that obtained from Bermuda grass as it is 
more composed of stems. Though not a handsome lawn 
grass, it is sometimes grown in lawns. But, when 
closely shorn in these, it forms a very perfect-like sod 
which is attractive. 

Securing Seed. — This grass seeds freely. In this one 
explanation is found of the frequency with which it 
comes amid other crops and in by-places. The seed is 
not yet handled by seed houses. It is doubtless correct 
to say, that when sown, only a few pounds of seed are 
required per acre. 

Renewing. — If some seeds are allowed to mature 
and fall to the ground, it is not difficult to cause the 
grass to thicken where the plants are few and strag- 
gling. The habit of rooting at the joints also facili- 
tates renewal, where, from the overshadowing of large 
plants, growth had been injured. 



322 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

VELVET GRASS. 

Velvet grass (Hoicks lanatus) is also known by the 
names, Meadow Soft grass, White Timothy, Salem 
grass, Velvet Lawn grass, Velvet Mesquit grass, Soft 
grass, Yorkshire grass and Yorkshire Fog. The three 
names mentioned last have been applied to it in Eng- 
land. It is also known by various names on the Con- 
tinent. The name Velvet grass has doubtless been given 
to it because of the resemblance which it bears to the 
softest velvet, in appearance and tonch. 

This grass grows from 1 to 2 feet high, but in some 
parts of the South where it has improved by acclima- 
tion, it grows from 2 to 4 feet high. The stems are 
round and grow erectly. The leaves are plentiful. 
The panicle is 2 to several inches long and is vari- 
ously tinted, but more commonly the tint is a whitish 
green, pinkish or purple. The roots are fibrous. This 
beautiful grass is so striking in its appearance and 
is so different from other grasses, that it is sure to be 
noticed and admired wherever seen. 

Velvet grass is perennial in the North, but not strict- 
ly so in the South. Notwithstanding its beauty, it 
ranks low in economical value. It grows so readily 
on some soils when introduced as to almost assume the 
character of a weed. Live stock are not fond of it 
either as pasture or as hay, since it is spongy, insipid 
and deficient in saline properties. But its nutritive 
value is said to exceed that of timothy or orchard grass. 
Yet since it will grow on soils too poor to grow many 
other grasses, it has a useful mission in some sections 
of the country. It is not to be confounded with Creep- 




Fig. 19. 
VELVET GRASS (Holcus lanatus). 
Oregon Experiment Station. 



VELVET GRASS. 323 

ing Soft grass (Holcus mollis), which is regarded as 
a troublesome weed. The latter has a creeping root 
and an open and spreading panicle. 

Distribution. — Velvet grass is native to Europe. In 
the moist climate of Great Britain, it grows so vigor- 
ously as almost to assume the character of a weed. It 
was introduced many years ago into several of the 
states, more especially those south and west. It is a 
fairly hardy grass but is best adapted to climates moist 
and free from great extremes, especially of cold and 
drought. 

In this country it has been grown much more in the 
southern and western states than in those northward. 
In these it has not only been tolerated, but its growth 
has been encouraged in instances not a few. It will 
grow well in New England also, and in all or nearly 
all the states where the rainfall is normal. But the 
attempt should not be made to grow it, where other 
grasses can be grown successfully, that are relished 
by live stock, and that are at the same time sufficiently 
productive. In limited areas in nearly all the south- 
ern states, it has been cultivated to some extent, and 
in some instances with advantage. In eastern Oregon, 
along the coast of which, it has been cultivated, it has 
become so aggressive in meadows as to be troublesome. 
In the dry areas of the semi-arid country, it is not 
likely to prove helpful. It will grow in Canada, in 
Ontario and eastward, also along the Pacific, but is 
not needed in these areas, where better yields can be 
obtained from grasses that are superior. 

Velvet grass will grow in almost any kind of land, 



324 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

however poor, but it grows best on moist peaty land. 
It will grow on light thin lands, on dry sandy and 
gravelly soils, or on retentive clay hills, when insuffi- 
cient moisture is present. When properly sown on these, 
it will not only produce crops, but when ploughed un- 
der, it prepares the land for growing other . and better 
crops. 

Place in the Rotation. — From what has been said, 
it will be evident that velvet grass is not properly 
speaking a rotation grass. When grown it should 
rather be to produce pasture or hay on poor soils. 
When ploughed up, however, it should of course be 
followed by such crops as experience has shown can 
be grown with profit under the conditions. 

Preparing the Soil. — It is not necessary to take so 
much pains in preparing the land for this crop as for 
many grasses that are grown, but, when sown, the aim 
should be to so prepare the land when practicable, 
that a good stand would likely be secured. Under 
some conditions, however, velvet grass will ultimately 
possess land if the seed is simply scattered over the 
same in the late summer or early autumn. 

Sowing. — The time for sowing velvet grass varies 
with the locality. In the North, all things considered 
the early spring would be the best season, but, doubt- 
less, sowing late would sometimes answer. In the 
South the seed may be sowed also in the early spring, 
but it is better to sow it in the autumn from August 
onward, according to the nature of the weather. In 
the extreme South, when sown in August, the crop 
may be cut for soiling food in January and February^ 



VELVET GRASS. 325 

and later if desired for seed. It is usually sown alone, 



as when sown with, better grasses it is likely to crowd 
them, and it is also less relished by the stock as pasture 
or hay. The seed being very light is sown by hand 
and because of its- lightness must be sown with care. 
It may also be propagated by dividing the roots and 
planting them, but this process is unnecessarily slow 
and tedious. In the South it may be successfully sown 
under some conditions at the last cultivation given to 
corn, the sorghums or root crops. From 10 to 14 
pounds of seed are usually sown per acre. 

Pasturing. — While this grass is not considered a 
good pasture grass, because of its low palatability, there 
are localities in which it will not only be eaten by live 
stock, but in which its presence is much preferable to 
no grass. In the presence of better grasses the stock 
will pass it by ungrazed. This allows the seed to 
ripen and scatter before the winds which it does read- 
ily because of its lightness. It is thus increased in 
pastures. Under these conditions, the aim is to get 
rid of it rather than to allow it to increase. 

Harvesting for Hay. — Like nearly all kinds of grass, 
velvet grass should be cut at the blossoming stage. 
Under average conditions it comes into flower in June, 
but in some locations in May. Its presence in good hay 
is not desirable, for the same reason that it is not de- 
sirable in pastures, but under some conditions it can 
be grown where hay cannot be made from grasses of 
superior quality. In these it is much better than no 
hay. Fertilizing mixed pastures or meadows in which 
this grass is growing, tends to increase its growth, the 



326 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

opposite of what usually follows such applications on 
inferior grasses where these may happen to be growing. 

Securing Seed. — Velvet grass seeds freely and is 
therefore quite productive of seed. Several bushels 
are obtained from an acre. The seed is light, weigh- 
ing not more than 6 to 7 pounds per bushel, under the 
methods of cleaning that have prevailed. The demand 
for the seed is not brisk, consequently not much atten- 
tion is given to the production of the same. The crop 
may be harvested much in the same way as meadow 
fescue. (See p. 204.) 

Renewing. — Velvet grass will renew itself, if some 
of the plants are allowed to go to seed in the pastures. 
This would mean of course, that grazing should not be 
close when such a result is desired. Velvet grass pas- 
tures may be thus maintained for many years. 

AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 

The Saltbush is essentially a product of the semi- 
arid country, although it will grow even more readily 
under favorable conditions. It is of several species. 
The variety which seems to meet with most favor in 
this country is that known as the Australian (Atriplex 
Semmihaccata) . It is so named, doubtless, from the 
fact that it was introduced from Australia. 

In its essential characteristics and habits of growth 
it is more like a bush or shrub than like a grass. The 
plants are spreading and drooping rather than erect. 
Stems rise up numerously from the crown of the plants. 
They are slender and covered with many branchlets, 
and these in turn are thickly covered with long rather 



AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 327 

than broad leaves. After growing upward for a short 
distance, the branches reach outward and many of 
them droop. In this way branches from a single bush 
have been known to extend a distance of 8 feet in every 
direction from the crown of the plant, but usually they 
are much less in size, especially when they are crowded. 
The stems become quite woody for some distance from 
the base as the plants grow older, hence the outer por- 
tions are much more suitable for food. The roots go 
down deeply into the soil and subsoil. In hard pan 
soils they are not much branched, but under conditions 
the opposite the branches are numerous and spread 
out in every direction. 

Australian Saltbush is perennial. It furnishes pas- 
ture and also hay for horses, cattle, sheep and goats, 
where other plants that furnish these in more desirable 
forms will not grow. The best service which it thus ren- 
ders is in soils so impregnated with alkali that they 
Avill sustain but few forms of vegetable life. 

Distribution. — Plants of the Saltbush species are 
native to both the old and new worlds. The Austra- 
lian Saltbush is doubtless native to Australia and was 
introduced into California in 1888. 

It is adapted to warm climates. How far north 
it may be grown has not been determined, but unless 
beside the Pacific, it is questionable if it will endure 
the winters further north than Spokane in Washing- 
ton. It will of course thrive much better under favor- 
able conditions as to moisture than under those the 
opposite. 'Nevertheless, its groAvth has been satisfac- 
tory where the rainfall has not exceeded 5 inches. 



328 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

This plant may be expected . to render the best of 
service in the warmer and drier portions of the semi- 
arid belt, including the states of California, Nevada, 
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. 
It may be said with safety that it has no mission for 
Canada nor is it likely to be grown in any part of 
the United States where range grasses will grow rea- 
sonably well. 

Soils. — Australian Saltbush will grow best on good 
soils, but it will also grow on soils that are shallow and 
underlaid with hardpan, when it has once been estab- 
lished. It is likely to take its place side by side with 
the sage bushes that grow on the sandy stretches of 
the semi-arid west, and to reclaim to productiveness 
wide stretches which the alkali present in the soil has 
heretofore kept destitute of vegetation. It must not 
be understood, however, that this plant will grow in 
all alkali soils. 

Place in the Rotation. — Australian Saltbush is of 
course not a rotation plant. When once established 
the aim is to keep it growing. It is probable, how- 
ever, that where it has been grown for some time on 
alkali soils, it will so improve them that they will thence- 
forth sustain one or more of the grasses proper. 

1 Preparing the Soil. — The best methods of growing 
Australian Saltbush under American conditions have 
not been fully worked out. Since, however, moisture 
is necessary to induce germination, and since precipi- 
tation is light, where this plant grows the plan which 
works the ground on the surface during the summer, 
something after the manner of caring for a bare fallow 



AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 329 

to prepare it for autumn seeding, would probably be 
the best. 

Sowing. — Some authorities have recommended ger- 
minating the plants in the greenhouse and then plant- 
ing them out. But this plan will not answer for large 
areas, owing to the cost. The seed should be scattered 
on land prepared as described, in the autumn, at which 
season some precipitation may be looked for, and to 
cover it with the harrow. But, on some alkali soils, 
better results will be obtained from sowing the seed 
on certain alkali lands on undisturbed surfaces, and 
pressing the same into the surface soil by running 
over it a heavy roller. Under yet other conditions, 
as when the plants are liable to be disturbed by weeds, 
it has been recommended to sow the plants in rows 
several feet apart and to give them some cultivation 
for a time. It is not usually necessary to seed heavily, 
since, when the plants have once become established, 
they will scatter seeds and will thus form additional 
] (lants if allowed to do so. 

Pasturing. — Grazing with horses, cattle, sheep or 
goats may take place at any season that the animals 
will eat the plants. There is no dispute as to the 
plants being nutritious since they are relatively rich 
in protein, but much difference of opinion is expressed 
as to the palatability in the same. It is pretty cer- 
tain that domestic animals, unless it be goats, will 
prefer grass when they can get it, but that in the ab- 
sence of grass they will feed upon the Saltbush pastures 
with readiness. The best service probably which those 
plants will render is in producing winter grazing. 



330 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Harvesting for Hay. — In a dry climate there should 
be no real difficulty in making Australian Saltbush 
into hay in much the same way as other hay is har- 
vested. It makes a coarse woody hay, but in situations 
where better hay cannot be obtained, it is vastly better 
than none, since range animals will feed upon it with 
more or less of relish in the winter season. However, 
it is better adapted relatively to furnish winter graz- 
ing in mild climates than to furnish winter hay. . 

Securing Seed. — But little is known as to the best 
methods of securing the seed of this plant under Amer- 
ican conditions. This phase of its cultivation has not 
been well worked out. Fortunately it seeds freely. 
The plan of cutting it with a self -rake reaper and 
threshing with a separator would seem to be quite 
feasible. The author has not been able to get any 
information as to the yields of the seed or to the mode 
of preparing the same for market. 

Renewing. — Australian Saltbush has not been grown 
long enough in this country to admit of gleaning much 
information on this question. But the fact that it is 
able to increase by self-sowing is significant. This 
should make it possible to control the renewal of pas- 
tures by simply allowing the plants occasionally to pro- 
duce more or less seed. 

PROMISING GRASSES NOT YET TESTED. 

When the ranges of the west and northwest came to 
be opened up, the expectation was cherished, that among 
the many grasses growing on them, some would be 
found that would so respond to cultivation, as to prove 
more valuable for some conditions, than many of the 



BLUE JOINT GRASS. 331 

older cultivated grasses. This expectation has been real- 
ized only in a slight degree. The only range grasses 
that are coming into general cultivation to any con- 
siderable extent at the present time are western rye 
grass (Agropyrum tenerum), in the North and Texas 
blue grass in the South. Notwithstanding the value 
of these grasses, they cannot be placed in the very front 
rank. 

Among those not yet tested under cultivation, or only 
partially tested, are but two varieties, which are pos- 
sessed of any considerable promise when cultivated. 
These are Blue Joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) and 
Blue Grama (Bouteloua oligostachya) . It is of course 
possible that other range grasses may yet be brought 
to the front, but the hope of this does not seem bright 
at the present time. 

Blue Joint (C alamagrostis canadensis). — This grass 
is perennial. It grows to the height of 3 to 6 feet and 
is surmounted by a panicle, rather narrow and purplish 
in color. It bears considerable resemblance to that 
of redtop, but it grows much higher and larger. The 
leaves are large and very abundant. The roots are 
creeping and the root system is very heavy. 

Unlike other grasses, known as blue joint, on the 
range it grows only in moist situations and produces 
much more abundantly than these. 

Blue Joint grows with great rapidity in May and 
June, and is a great yielder, giving generally from 2 to 
4 tons per acre of excellent hay, that is much relished by 
live stock. 

It is distributed over nearly all the northern states, 
Grasses — 22. 



332 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

but, uncultivated, its growth is confined to marshy 
ground and to lands situated along creeks and rivers, 
that are sluggish in their flow. It is found in the 
Mississippi basin as far south as northern Missouri, 
but is most abundant in the marshes of Michigan, Wis- 
consin, Minnesota and Manitoba in Canada. 

Blue Joint prefers marshy lands, too wet for redtop 
and too dry for wire grass. It thrives best on de- 
composed or partly decomposed peat, but has also re- 
sponded encouragingly when tested at the experiment 
station at Ames, Iowa. 

In a natural state, its place in the rotation has been 
given. Under cultivation, it would probably answer 
best as permanent meadow; nor can anything be said, 
at present, based on experience as to the best methods 
of preparing the land and sowing the seed. 

The plants seed with considerable freedom and ma- 
ture their seeds in July. It should be cut for hay 
not later than the early flowering stage, or it will lose 
much in the palatability, but in this respect it does not 
lose to the extent of many other grasses. The hay is 
eaten with much relish by all classes of farm stock 
and is said to be of average nutrition. While in a 
state of nature, though eaten readily by stock at the 
proper season for grazing, which is late in May or 
early in June, the ground is usually too soft for such 
grazing. It is probable that the seed could be best 
secured by setting the binder as high as possible and 
binding into sheaves. 

This grass should certainly be carefully tested in 
an experimental way on low lands, to which cultiva- 



BLUE GRAMA. 333 

tion may be given and which are underlaid with peat. 
It is possible, that under conditions more dry than 
those where it now grows at its best, it would not en- 
dure long. Notwithstanding it is certainly worthy 
of further investigation. 

Blue Grama (Bouteloiia oligostacliya) . — This grass 
belongs to a somewhat numerous family, which have 
special adaptation for warm, dry range conditions. It 
has also been called Mesquit of Mezquite. It is the 
most promising of all the grama grasses, although the 
variety Tall Grama {Bouteloua racemosa) has been 
well spoken of. Blue grama grows to the height of 
6 to 18 inches, but seldom exceeds the height of 12 
inches, under range conditions ; under cultivation it 
grows higher. The leaves are numerous, narrow and 
firm. The spike is 1 to 5 inches long. It has strong 
rhizomes and forms a dense turf. 

It is a hardy grass and specially drought resistant. 
It is much relished by live stock as pasture or as hay. 
It seeds freely and has the property of growing when 
rain falls and then seeding and curing as the weather 
becomes dry. 

This grass extends from the Mississippi to the Pacific 
and from British Columbia to Mexico. In Montana 
it is called Buffalo grass and frequents the bench lands 
at elevations from 3000 to 5000 feet above sea-level. 
It grows at its best between latitudes 36 deg. and 42 
deg. north. 

It has great power to grow under dry conditions, 
but will also grow better where moisture is more abun- 
dant. Its highest utility will likely consist in re-cloth- 



334 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ing ranges, where other grasses have failed, through 
overstocking, hence it is not likely to be a rotation 
grass. When cultivated, it will grow and thrive un- 
der conditions more dry than would be suitable for 
other cultivated grasses. 

Blue grama is a nutritious and palatable grass and 
stands grazing better than almost any other range grass. 
This is owing, in part at least, to the dense turf which 
it forms, notwithstanding that it is a bunch grass. The 
hay is considered about the best produced on south- 
western ranges and, in some areas, is about the only 
hay obtainable. The seed can be obtained, under cul- 
tivation, like that of other grasses, by stripping or 
reaping and threshing, but information with reference 
to growing it is very meagre. 

Blue grama is certainly deserving of careful experi- 
ment, more especially in the range states. At the 
Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company's station 
at Walla Walla, Washington, in 1899, it gave the most 
satisfactory results in growing hay and seed, among 
the many varieties tested at that station. 



CHAPTEK XV. 

TEMPORARY PASTURES. 

Pastures are of two kinds, temporary and perma- 
nent. The former, sometimes called rotation pastures, 
are grown to provide grazing for but a limited num- 
ber of years; in some instances, for only one season 
and seldom for more than three reasons. The second 
are grown to furnish grazing for an indefinite num- 
ber of years, usually for a long period and in some 
instances, as in the case of range lands and lands that 
are untillable, for all time. The term rotation pastures 
is applied to the former because they form a part of 
a regular or irregular rotation grown in conjunction 
with grain and other crops. 

Temporary pastures are usually, but not always, 
grown in some sort of alternation with crops grown 
to provide hay or soiling food, but usually the former. 
In nearly all instances, when hay is taken from these 
crops, it is taken from the first crop. Sometimes the 
crop is made into hay for two successive seasons and 
then pastured for one or more years. In some in- 
stances but one crop of hay is taken and one of pasture ; 
in others several crops of both are taken. More com- 
monly, however^ hay is grown for two successive sea- 
sons and the crop is then pastured for one or more 
seasons. The hay crops are taken first because larger 



336 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

yields are obtained then than could be obtained later, 
and because weed growth is thus better kept in check 
than it would be if the first crop were grazed. 

When growing these pastures, a due regard must 
be had to the quick setting of the grasses and varieties 
must be chosen that reach a maximum of production 
quickly, as for instance timothy. Grasses that do not 
reach the zenith of productiveness for several years, 
as for instance blue grass, should not be sown in these 
pastures. In very many cases, clover, in one or more 
of its varieties, is made to form a part of these pastures. 
In growing them no combination is more frequently 
used than timothy and clover. Careful attention should 
also be given to the choice of varieties that mature at 
nearly fhe same seasons of the year. The necessity for 
this arises from the advantage to the hay crop when 
all the grasses composing it can be harvested at the 
proper season. In laying down permanent pastures, 
the opposite course should be adopted in order to fur- 
nish continuous growth throughout the season. 

When pastures are wanted for but one season, they 
are usually furnished by growing clover of one or 
more varieties, millet in one of its varieties, sorghum, 
one of the non-saccharine sorghums, vetches, rape, kale 
and the small cereal grains sown alone or in conjunc- 
tion. The growing of these for pastures is discussed 
in a Forage Crops Other Than Grasses'' by the author. 
Readers who desire information with reference to the 
growing of these pastures are referred to the said vol- 
ume. 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 337 

GRASSES ADAPTED TO VARIOUS CONDITIONS. 

Since grasses differ much in the degree of their 
adaptation to various conditions, a brief discussion with 
reference to such adaptation will follow. The question 
will be discussed from the standpoint of conditions such 
as apply to soil, climate and ability to grow under shade. 

For Upland Pastures. — In the northern states and 
Canada, cultivated grasses, best adapted to ordinary 
upland soils in producing temporary pastures, are tim- 
othy, orchard grass, Russian brome, redtop, and west- 
ern rye grass. Meadow Fescue and tall oat grass are 
not included, since several years are required to grow 
them at their best. Timothy, though not of highest 
value in producing pasture through the season, is, never-, 
theless, extensively sown for such a use, since it will 
grow over a wide area, sets quickly and has special 
adaptation for being sown with the red clovers on up- 
land soils. When Russian brome is wanted for tem- 
porary pastures, it should be sown thickly so as to get 
a full stand the year after sowing. The method most 
commonly adopted in obtaining temporary grazing in 
the North is by sowing timothy and red clover, as a 
full stand of these may be obtained the year after 
sowing them. Blue grass and white clover come into 
these pastures in many sections without being sown. 
In much of northwestern Canada, this combination 
is not successful since clover, heretofore, has failed to 
grow satisfactorily. When these pastures are to be 
maintained for four to six years, more attention should 
be given to adding the seed of orchard grass and redtop 
than has been given to the sowing of these in the 



338 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

past. The grasses of lesser value for the conditions 
named are Italian rye, tall oat and perennial rye 
grasses. 

In the southern states those grasses best adapted to 
such conditions are tall oat, orchard, redtop and in 
some parts timothy and rescue grass. Those of less 
value for pasture include Italian rye, perennial rye, 
velvet grass and in some parts carpet grass. Bermuda 
and Texas blue grasses are both adapted to permanent 
grazing. 

For Slough Lands. — In the northern states and Can- 
ada, the cultivated grasses, best adapted to slough lands 
and such as are low-lying but drained, are timothy, 
redtop and Russian brome. Any one of these alone 
or in combination may be made to furnish good graz- 
ing in such situations better than they will furnish on 
ordinary upland. The grazing may be further im- 
proved by sowing alsike and white clover with these 
pastures. The mixture, most frequently sown on such 
lands, is a combination of timothy, redtop and alsike 
clover. The cultivated grasses less frequently sown 
on such lands include fowl meadow, rough stalked 
meadow and Italian rye grasses. 

In the southern states, redtop is the best pasture 
grass for such situations. Timothy and also Italian 
rye grass will answer in some localities. In the South, 
however, it is relatively more important that temporary 
grass pastures shall be supplemented by pastures fur- 
nished by sowing certain grasses alone or in mixtures. 
Further reference will be made to the sowing of these 
in the present chapter. 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 339 

For Sandy Lands. — The range of adaptation in cul- 
tivated grasses for sandy or gravelly lands is not wide 
and it narrows as the conditions become drier. For 
temporary grazing on such lands, winter rye, not a 
grass in the ordinary use of the word, will furnish 
more pasture than anything else. Of the true and 
valuable cultivated grasses, Russian brome stands first 
in adaptation for such situations, but even this grass 
will not provide abundant grazing on such lands. Where 
moisture is ample, the production on these lands may 
be greatly stimulated by fertilizing them and tnen 
sowing red clover along with the grass. This is one 
of the situations in which sowing quack grass seed 
may in some instances be admissible in the North, and 
velvet grass in the South, where Russian brome grass 
does not succeed so well. In these southern pastures, 
Japan and Buffalo clovers will prove helpful in sup- 
plementing the grazing. 

It may also be found, especially in the dry uplands 
of the West and Southwest, that it may be advisable to 
introduce tall grama (Bouteloua racemosa) and blue 
grama {Bouteloua ooligostachya) , but more experience 
in growing these is wanted before pronouncing defi- 
nitely with reference to this question. 

For Dry Areas. — For dry areas such as those of the 
semi-arid belt east of the Rocky mountains and in cer- 
tain of the plains within the mountains, it is at least 
questionable if any of the cultivated grasses will be 
found any improvement over those which nature has 
placed there. Nor has the fact been fully demon- 
strated, that any of these can be established over wide 



340 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

areas of the range in the absence of cultivation. It 
may yet prove, however, that Russian brome and blue 
grama may be found able to supplant the grasses 
growing in certain areas of the prairie where the for- 
mer have in part succumbed to close pasturing. This 
question is further discussed in Chapter XVIII. (See 
p. 452.) 

For Wet Soils. — Soils, that are saturated with water 
during any considerable portion of the year, are ill 
adapted to the growth of grasses that are valuable, 
when viewed from the standpoint of food producing 
properties. Those that are covered with water an- 
nually for any considerable time have still lower adap- 
tation for such production. The deeper the water that 
covers, and the longer the period of such covering, 
the less valuable is the grass production that follows. 
If better grasses are to be grown, the lowering of the 
water should first engage the attention of the grower. 
Where this cannot be done, the work of improvement 
is well nigh hopeless. Grasses and sedges that grow 
under these conditions are usually coarse, low in nu- 
tritive qualities and still lower relatively in palatabil- 
ity. Some grasses, however, grow in such situations 
that may possess considerable feeding value. Such 
is what is popularly termed blue joint (Calamagrostis 
canadensis) which grows in certain of the swamps of 
Minnesota, saturated in winter and ordinarily dry in 
summer. Others are valuable for manufacturing. Such 
is wire grass (Carex vulpenoidea) which grows in peat 
swamps and others again are valuable only for litter. 

It is interesting to note the improvement that takes 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 341 

place in the grasses that grow on soils that were marshy 
as drainage progresses. The impassable muskeg, for 
instance, in the northern states will sustain only the 
Labrador Tea shrub. Lower the waters of the mus- 
keg, and wire grass dies to make way for some 
better grass — how much better will be determined 
by the character of the underlying peat. The evolu- 
tion that may be accomplished by the drainage of 
some marshes is very great. But this does not apply 
to all marshes, as in some the peat is of such a char- 
acter that it cannot be speedily made to sustain a vig- 
orous vegetation for a prolonged period, after the re- 
moval of the water. 

Some grasses will grow well in lands so low as to be 
saturated for several days and even weeks, when the 
weather is cool, providing the water does not rise above 
the surface or does not cover it more than two or three 
inches. The four valuable grasses best adapted to 
such situations are Russian brome, redtop, fowl meadow, 
timothy; alsike clover is also possessed of such adap- 
tation. During warm weather, such saturation is usual- 
ly injurious. 

For Growing in Shade. — Grasses differ much in their 
adaptation for growing in shade. As the country grows 
older, it is legitimate to expect that park-like pastures 
for live stock will more and more abound. If this ex- 
pectation is realized, the question of adaptation in 
grasses to such conditions will become increasingly 
important. Orchard grass, heretofore, has stood high- 
est in the popular estimate for being grown under 
such conditions; meadow fescue can also endure con- 



342 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

siderable shade. It may yet be found, however, that 
Russian brome will rival even orchard grass in its abil- 
ity to grow beneath the boughs of trees. At the Indian 
Head experimental farm, Assiniboia, Canada, this grass 
is virtually covering the ground amid the windbreaks 
on the farm. Kentucky blue grass has considerable 
power to grow in such situations. In growing any 
grass beneath the shade of trees, the fact, that the feed- 
ing value of the same is lessened in proportion as the 
density of the shade increases, should not be overlooked. 

GRASSES FOR THE STATES AND PROVINCES. 

The attempt will be made to name the grasses that 
are suitable for furnishing temporary meadows and 
pastures, adapted to the various states of the Union 
and the different provinces of Canada. To facilitate 
this work these will be divided into several groups. In 
making these divisions the plan will be to include the 
states and provinces in the same group in which the 
production is similar or approximately so. 

For the Northeastern States. — The northeastern 
states are intended to include in this discussion all 
those states that lie north of the Ohio and Potomac 
rivers and east of Lake Michigan and Illinois. 

The grasses which have suitable adaptation for these 
are those which have suitable adaptation also for the 
provinces of Canada east from Lake Huron to the At- 
lantic. The grasses which will best furnish temporary 
pastures in these include timothy, orchard grass and 
redtop, valuable, all things considered, in the order 
named. Notwithstanding that the value of orchard 
grass for grazing may be intrinsically superior, timothy 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 343 

fits so well with medium red, mammoth and alsike 
clovers for growing hay that it is almost invariably 
sown with one of these and mowed for one or two 
years ; then pastured for about the same length of time 
before the sod is broken. 

For the relative amounts of seed to sow when tim- 
othy is sown with medium red clover, with mammoth 
clover, or with alsike clover, see p. 69. If sown with 
two of these, the quantity is reduced. As previously 
intimated, timothy and medium red clover are more 
commonly sown on uplands ; timothy and alsike are 
sown on lowlands. Orchard grass is more commonly 
sown in conjunction with medium red clover. For the 
proper amounts of seed to sow, see p. 140 ; for the 
amount to sow alone, see p. 140. Redtop, as previous- 
ly intimated, has highest adaptation for low lying lands 
not only because it grows better in these, but because 
these are usually grazed for a longer period than up- 
lands before being broken, which better suits the con- 
siderable time required by this grass to become estab- 
lished. But upland soils also may be so congenial to 
the growth of this grass, that it may prove profitable 
also to sow it in these, when the pastures are not of 
short duration. When medium red or mammoth clov- 
ers are sown on upland soils along with timothy, or- 
chard grass and redtop to provide hay and pasture 
about 6 pounds of either of the clovers per acre and 3 
pounds of each of the other grasses should be sufficient. 
Redtop is usually sown on lowlands with timothy and 
alsike clover. For the amounts of seed to soav, see 
p. 158. 



344 ' GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

In the area named, Kentucky blue grass and white 
clover are much prone to come into the pastures even 
though temporary in character, hence, it is not neces- 
sary to sow them. 

The grasses with less adaptation for such pastures 
in these states include Russian brome, tall oat, rough 
stalked meadow and fowl meadow grasses. Russian 
brome will grow well over all this area as pasture or 
as hay, but it is slow in becoming established. It 
is less easy of establishment than some of the others 
named, and it is less necessary to grow it than under 
other climatic conditions. A few pounds of tall oat 
grass seed sown along with clover and timothy or 
clover and orchard grass may prove helpful. Two 
pounds of alsike clover seed may also render good serv- 
ice when sown with one or more of these grasses and 
clovers, in certain upland soils. 

In all the area now being considered, these grasses 
may be sown alone or with a nurse crop, but prefer- 
ably with the latter, as then a crop is secured while 
the pastures are becoming established. 

For the Southeastern States. — This group of states 
comprises those which lie between the Ohio and Poto- 
mac Rivers and the Gulf of Mexico, also the states of 
Arkansas, Louisiana and that portion of Texas which 
is adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. 

The grasses in it, best adapted to the production of 
temporary pastures and meadows include orchard, tall 
oat, redtop and timothy, valuable probably in the order 
named, when considered in their adaptation to the 
whole region. These grasses are sown singly or in 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 345 

combination, with or without a nurse crop. The best 
season for sowing is the autumn, after the fall rains 
come and early enough for the grass to get a firm hold 
upon the soil, before the advent of winter. In cer- 
tain parts of this area, especially those that lie to the 
northward, red and alsike clovers may supplement these 
grasses, but toward the Gulf the conditions are not 
highly favorable to the growth of these. When these 
grasses are sown alone 28 pounds of orchard grass 
should suffice per acre ; 24 pounds of tall oat grass ; 
28 pounds of redtop and 12 pounds of timothy. Eor 
temporary pastures, orchard grass should probably be 
given the first place and for temporary meadows tall 
oat grass; but for those more permanent in character, 
redtop would probably be more valuable; in portions 
of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee, timothy should 
be given first place. In combination, orchard and 
tall oat grasses grow well together, using 14 pounds 
of seed of the former per acre and 12 pounds of the 
latter. White clover or Japan clover (Lespedeza 
striata) usually comes into these pastures when not 
broken for two or three years. If red clover is sown 
with orchard and redtop grasses, not more than 4 to 
6 pounds of the seed will be required and some re- 
duction may be made in the amounts of the seed sown 
of these respective grasses. 

Southward tall oat grass and rescue grass will give 
the best probable results among grasses and Japan 
clover among clovers. Rescue grass is an annual and 
when sowing it for pasture or to provide hay use 30 
pounds of seed. When Japan clover is sown alone 



346 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

use 12 pounds of seed per acre. When sown together 
use half the amount of the seed of each and sow the for- 
mer in the autumn and the latter in the spring. Orch- 
ard grass may also have a place. In all these states, 
however, unless it be those lying northward, the plan 
of growing temporary pasture and fodder from cer- 
tain annuals sown in the autumn is to be commended, 
since these furnish excellent winter and spring graz- 
ing. (See p. 356.) The best common grazing is ob- 
tained from Bermuda grass. 

Next in adaptation to the grasses named would be 
Italian and perennial rye grasses; these have scarcely 
received that attention in the South which their merits 
claim. 

For the Canadian Northwest. — This division in- 
cludes all the provinces of Canada between Lake Su- 
perior and the Rocky mountains. The conditions are 
much the same also in the Red River valley in Minne- 
sota and North Dakota. 

The three best grasses for pasture and meadow in 
all this region are Russian brome, timothy and west- 
ern rye grass probably in the order named. The first 
named is decidedly in the lead as a pasture grass. All 
in all, it is also important as a producer of hay for 
feeding on the farm, but timothy must be assigned 
first place in growing hay for market. These grasses 
may be sown alone or in combination. When Russian 
brome is sown alone to provide pasture or hay quickly, 
sow 18 pounds of seed per acre; of timothy, 12 pounds ; 
of western rye, IS pounds. When Russian brome and 
timothy are sown together apply 9 and 6 pounds of 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 347 

these respectively; this combination meets with con- 
siderable favor. When Russian brome and western 
rye are sown together use 9 and 9 pounds respectively. 
This combination is specially adapted to areas where 
the conditions are dry. When Russian brome, tim- 
othy and western rye are sown together, about 6 pounds 
of the seed of each would be ample to sow. Whether 
clover in any of its varieties can be sown to advantage 
in this area, or in any part or parts of it, to supplement 
the grasses named, has yet to be demonstrated. 

For the Upper Mississippi Basin. — This group of 
states includes Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, 
Missouri and eastern Kansas, Nebraska and a limited 
portion of eastern North and South Dakota. 

In the northern portion of this area, the leading 
grasses for temporary grazing and also for hay are 
timothy, redtop, Russian brome, medium red and al- 
sike clover. On the uplands, timothy and red clover 
are more commonly sown, as in the states comprised 
in the northeastern group. On the lowlands, timothy, 
redtof and alsike clover are the grasses most frequently 
sown. In portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, in- 
cluding much of eastern Minnesota and wide areas in 
Wisconsin, once covered with hardwood forest, the adap- 
tation of the soil for the various kinds of clover and 
for blue grass is remarkably high. Hence, in these 
areas blue grass and white clover come into the pas- 
tures, when of any considerable duration, without be- 
ing sown. The same is true of blue grass in much 
of the lowland soil. The adaptation of meadow fescue 
and meadow foxtail have not been well tested in these 
Grasses — 23. 



348 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

areas, but Russian brome has been sufficiently tested 
to demonstrate that it stands high in adaptation both 
for hay and pasture. What has been said of those 
portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, will also apply, 
in the main, to Iowa and Illinois except that adapta- 
tion for growing clover in these, though high, is not 
so high as the portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin 
that were specified. Orchard grass and tall oat grass 
have but medium adaptation. In southwestern and 
western Minnesota and in the Dakotas, timothy and 
clover pastures are of short duration, although the 
production of both are improving and Russian brome 
is growing in favor. In Missouri, timothy and clover 
do well in providing hay and grazing, but in the parts 
of Kansas and Nebraska included, while clovers flour- 
ish, timothy does not quite equal orchard grass in fur- 
nishing pasture; the same is true of Russian brome. 
Alfalfa is coming to be the leading plant in providing 
hay and swine pasture in eastern Kansas and Ne- 
braska; its cultivation for these is rapidly extending 
in the other portions of the area now being considered. 

For the Semi-Arid Belt. — In this group of states 
are included all those that lie east of the Cascade and 
Coast mountains, exclusive of the irrigated valleys 
and west of the states included in the upper Missis- 
sippi and southeastern groups. 

In the greater portion of this area, the pasture and 
hay grasses are such as nature provides ; the former 
on the uplands and the latter in the depressions. These 
vary with the locality and the degree of the humidity. 
They include a great variety of grasses, nearly all of 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 349 

which are possessed of high nutrition, but the major 
portion are of a somewhat dwarfed habit of growth 
and they grow more sparsely as moisture decreases. 
Acre for acre, as compared with sown pastures, these 
pastures are relatively low in producing power; wheth- 
er in this respect they can be improved by other grasses 
is problematical. This question is further discussed 
in Chapter XVIII. 

On many of the uplands, however, at the base of 
the mountains, usually spoken of as the '"foothills," 
pasture and hay from such plants as alfalfa, timothy 
and other grasses can be grown, but the range of such 
production has not yet been ascertained. The chief 
supplies of fodder, required to supplement grazing 
in the winter in these areas, will come from the irri- 
gated valleys found with more or less frequency in 
much of the range country. However, on the uplands 
of Washington, Idaho and Oregon, taking Moscow as 
a centre, pasture or meadow may be obtained from 
orchard grass, Russian brome, tall oat grass or meadow 
fescue. 

The Irrigated Valleys. — The reference here is not 
only to the valleys now irrigated in the region that is 
being considered but to those also that are susceptible 
of irrigation, and that will unquestionably be irrigated 
in the future that is not far distant. These include 
all the irrigable valleys in the entire Rocky mountain 
districts of the United States and Canada. 

These valleys are capable of producing for pasture 
or for hay all or nearly all the valuable grasses and 
clovers that can be grown on the continent; nor is the 



350 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

character of the adaptation greatly different until the 
streams leave the mountain districts, since the cli- 
mate within reasonable proximity to the coast is mild 
and even in character. When, however, the river val- 
leys leave the mountains, more especially those that 
flow inland rather than seaward, the mean tempera- 
ture differs considerably with latitude. The grasses 
and clovers that may be grown there along the entire 
coast under irrigation are nearly the same. In the 
valleys that extend eastward from the mountains, such 
grasses as are adapted only to mild climates could not 
be grown successfully in the northern valleys ; nor is 
this to be regretted since these are not so valuable in- 
trinsically as those that are more rugged and enduring. 
All grasses and clovers are not equally well adapted 
to irrigation. Those that have such adaptation in a 
marked degree are happily sufficiently numerous to 
meet all the needs of those who till the soil. Promi- 
nent among the grasses that have high adaptation for 
irrigation are timothy, redtop, Russian brome, orchard 
grass, meadow fescue, perennial and Italian rye grasses ; 
among the clovers are alfalfa, medium red, mammoth, 
alsike and the white. In productive power and dura- 
tion of life, alfalfa is king among the clovers and in 
productive power king also over the grasses. With 
such a wide range of valuable grasses to choose from, 
those who till these valleys can not only secure hay of 
anv combination desired, but they can also secure enor- 
mous yields of the same. Heretofore, but little at- 
tempt has been made to grow these plants in combi- 
nation. In growing for hay, the aim should be to 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 351 

combine those which mature at nearly the same period ; 
alsike clover and timothy furnish one of the best of 
these combinations, more especially when the quality 
of the hay is considered. In growing temporary pas- 
tures, there is probably no better combination than 
medium red clover and orchard grass. In growing per- 
manent pastures, all the grasses and clovers enumer- 
ated above could be used if desired or any combination 
of these that might be preferred. 

With so much range land as is usually found bor- 
dering on these valleys and extending back from them, 
the land of the valleys is not likely to be devoted to the 
extensive growing of pastures for some time to come. 
But their capacity to grow these, notwithstanding, is 
very great ; it would be interesting to know the limit 
of such possible productivity. In 1900, at the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station Farm at Bozeman, Mon- 
tana, cattle were grazed on 5.04 acres of irrigated land 
for an average of 109 2-3 days ; the increase in weight 
made was 4560 pounds. This valued at 4 cents per 
pound gave a net profit from the pasture of $36.19 per 
acre. In growing such pastures, the element of danger 
from bloat caused by eating green clover will be largely 
eliminated by growing grasses in combination with it. 

West of the Cascades. — This region includes the 
relatively narrow strip of land between the Rocky 
mountains and the Pacific and extending from Cali- 
fornia to Alaska. 

All the grasses that have been discussed in this work 
can be grown in some part of this area. The temper- 
ature is mild and even, during much of the year and 



352 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the climate is also moist. During nine or ten months 
of the year, the gentle rains are frequent. This, of 
course, is greatly favorable to the production of good 
pastures. 

It is simply a matter of choice as to which grasses 
shall be grown for temporary hay and pasture produc- 
tion. In growing hay those plants should be chosen 
for being grown singly or in combinations which take 
the market most readily. At present timothy, Avith a 
moderate quantity of alsike clover in it, makes an 
excellent market hay. For temporary pastures, me- 
dium red clover, orchard and Italian rye grasses should 
answer well; sowing per acre, 6 pounds of clover, 7 
pounds of orchard grass and 7 pounds of rye grass. 

Pastures Other than Grasses and Clover. — In all or 
nearly all sections of the United States and Canada, 
the necessity exists for growing more or less pasture 
for the various classes of live stock, kept upon the farm 
in addition to such as are obtained from clovers and 
the grasses proper. This necessity arises from the fre- 
quency with which the grass and clover seeds sown fail 
to make a stand or with which they may fail, or par- 
tially fail, through adverse winter weather. It is pres- 
ent in proportion as these hazards are frequent and 
severe; as the locality is favorable or otherwise to the 
production of grass pastures. These include the small 
cereal grains, leguminous or non-leguminous, the sac- 
charine and non-saccharine sorghums, the various mil- 
lets, cow peas and soy beans, rape and kale and for 
swine such roots as artichokes and peanuts. The most 
valuable of these pastures for cattle are the small cereal 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 353 

grains, the sorghums, rape and kale, cow peas and soy 
beans and the millets, probably in the order named. The 
most valuable for sheep are rape and kale, the small 
cereal grains, the sorghums, the millets, cow peas and 
soy beans, probably in the order named. The most 
valuable for swine are the small grains, cow peas and 
soy beans, artichokes and peanuts and the sorghums, 
in the order named. The most valuable by far of the 
small cereals in providing grazing is winter rye ; the 
most valuable of the pure pasture plants is rape and 
the most valuable of the sorghums are the saccharine. 

This whole question, however, is discussed at length 
by the author in the book, u Forage Crops Other than 
Grasses," published in 1900. Headers who desire fur- 
ther information on this aspect of the grazing question 
are referred to the said book. 

MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS UPON TEMPORARY 
PASTURES. 

A discussion is now submitted with reference to the 
management of temporary pastures ; also with refer- 
ence to the influence which these exert upon the soil 
and, through it upon the production of other crops. 

Sowing Temporary Pastures. — This question has 
been touched upon in Chapter II. (see page 36). In 
sowing temporary pastures, preparation of the land, 
its condition as to cleanliness and fertilization, the 
season for sowing and adaptation of the grasses to the 
needs of the land, the climate and the live stock which 
will graze upon them are chiefly to be considered. The 
following rules may be submitted with reference to the 



354 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

preparation of the land : 1. On average soils aim to 
have the seed bed fine and smooth at the time of sow- 
ing the seed. 2. Seek fine pulverization in lands not 
naturally friable when preparing the seed bed in spring, 
but be content with pulverization less fine when pre- 
paring the same for autumn sowing in climates of 
much rainfall in winter. 3. On soils so light as to lift 
with the winds, sow on an uneven surface and aim to 
leave the surface rough. 4. Aim so to prepare the 
land that it will have sufficient moisture near enough 
the surface to germinate readily the seed when it is 
sown. 

Since nearly all grasses start more feebly and grow 
more slowly at the first than the small cereal grains, 
it is more important relatively that they shall be sown 
on clean land, however it may be cleaned. Since tem- 
porary pastures tend to put humus in the soil and also 
available fertility, it is not as necessary that the soil 
shall be well supplied with humus and fertility as 
when sowing many other crops ; the growth of the grass, 
nevertheless, will usually be proportionate to the 
amount of both in the soil. It is not usual to apply 
fresh farmyard manure in large quantities the same 
season that lands are laid down to grass, since the 
growth of weeds would thereby be encouraged to the 
detriment of the young grass plants. If, however, 
these have been applied to some cultivated crop grown, 
the previous season, the influence is beneficent to the 
growth of these. The weed seeds in this manure have 
been destroyed and the residue of fertility from the 
manure is readily available. On some poor sandy soils, 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 355 

however, it may be necessary first to bury a green crop, 
as of rye, to put humus in the soil before the grains 
are sown ; or it may be necessary to apply some arti- 
ficial fertility on the same. 

As a rule, the best results will be obtained from 
sowing the hardy grasses in the autumn, north or 
south. In the North it is important that these shall 
be sown early in the autumn ; clovers at the North can 
be sown in the spring or summer only; in the South 
they may frequently be sown with advantage in the 
autumn, as soon as the fall rains come. Plants, other 
than grasses, sown to provide grazing but for one sea- 
son should more commonly be sown as early as possible 
in spring, but to this there are some exceptions. Win- 
ter rye is sown in the autumn both north and south; 
in the South all the small cereal crops grown for such 
grazing are better sown in the early autumn. Usually 
in climates with sufficient rainfall, grasses and clovers 
are preferably sown with nurse crops, whether sown 
autumn or spring in the North ; in the South these are 
frequently sown in autumn without nurse crops, since 
when thus sown they are soon ready for grazing. 

The question of adaptation of the grasses to the needs 
of the land involves the study of the habits of growth 
in each variety of plant grown and of adaptation of 
soils to the growth in the same. The more rugged 
grasses only should be grown under hard conditions 
of soil and climate. Under favorable conditions of 
both, varieties less rugged but probably intrinsically 
more valuable, may be grown. Unless for purposes 
of experiment, grasses of proved adaptation to the 



356 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

climatic conditions only should be grown. The grasses 
proper are considered better adapted relatively than 
the clovers to furnish grazing for horses. Both are 
very suitable for cattle and sheep, and, when grown 
in combination, the danger from bloat is practically 
eliminated. The latter are more suitable for swine. 
Plants grown only for pasture, as rape, are most suit- 
able for sheep. Those which furnish the most succu- 
lence are best adapted for milk production, Avhile not 
too much succulence gives better results Jn growing 
meat. 

Grazing Temporary Pastures. — When grass pastures 
are sown in the autumn they may be grazed the folloAv- 
ing season, and in some instances southward the same 
autumn. When sown in the spring, and especially 
when sown with nurse crops, they should not be grazed 
the same season. To this also there may be some ex- 
ceptions, as when, for instance, the growth may be so 
strong as to endanger the grasses through smothering 
under snowfall. When the cereal grains are sown for 
pasture, they should be pastured from the time they 
will furnish plentiful grazing. Grasses and clovers 
sown along with them, especially on porous soils, as 
the black loams of the prairie, will be benefited by such 
grazing through the firming of the soil, and the more 
lacking the supply of moisture, the greater will be the 
benefit. On some soils and in some sections autumn 
sown cereals may be grazed during the winter with 
benefit to the crop. Winter wheat, for instance, is thus 
frequently grazed in Kansas ; winter rye may be thus 
grazed even further north. On rich prairie soils wheat 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 357 

and oats are made to yield more in moist seasons when 
grazed by sheep for a time in the spring. This benefit 
comes largely through increased stooling in the plants. 

The following rules apply to the grazing of grass 
pastures : 1. Never graze these if it is possible to 
arrange otherwise when the pastures are so wet that 
the land will poach or become impacted as a result. 
2. Close grazing lessens production in the pastures, but 
in dry seasons the reduction resulting will be much 
more than in wet seasons. 3. The palatability of all 
kinds of plants is lessened for grazing if allowed to 
form the seed head, and to prevent this it may be nec- 
essary sometimes to use the mower. 4. Close grazing 
in the late autumn weakens the vitality of the plants ; 
one result of which is they will not start so quickly or 
so vigorously in the spring. 

The observations now submitted apply rather to pas- 
tures produced by the small cereal grains: 1. The 
further from the earing stage they are kept the more 
pasture they will furnish and the longer the period 
during which it will grow. 2. While being grazed, 
grass pasture should be accessible on which the animals 
can be pastured in time of wet, when grazing would 
be hurtful to grain pastures. 3. Because of the suc- 
culence of grain pastures and to avoid unnecessary 
tramping, the animals grazed on grain pastures should 
be grazed on grass pastures at night and also during 
a portion of each day. 

In pasturing some animals grown for pasture, haz- 
ard of loss is incurred. It arises from the following 
sources: 1. When rape and succulent clovers are 



358 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

being grazed loss from bloating is sometimes incurred. 
2. When cattle are being grazed on sorghum and Kaffir 
corn, particularly of the second growth, animals some- 
times die suddenly while grazing on the same. 3. 
When cattle graze on cornstalks in the late autumn and 
winter, they frequently die in considerable numbers. 
To meet the first danger the animals should be grad- 
ually accustomed to the pasture. They should not be 
turned on the same when hungry, and but cautiously 
when the plants are wet. As the cause of hazard from 
the second source is not certainly known, it cannot be 
fully met, but it has been noticed that the danger is 
greatest when the growth of the plants has become 
stunted from drought. The cause of the hazard from 
the third source is likewise not known, but the incurred 
loss can certainly be avoided by harvesting the corn 
at the proper season as it should be harvested, and then 
feeding it to the live stock. The question of grazing 
is discussed at some length in the book, "Forage Crops 
Other than Grasses," referred to above. 

Fertilizing and Renewing. — It is not usual to apply 
commercial fertilizers to stimulate the growth of pas- 
tures of short duration. These are more commonly 
applied when preparing the land, when sowing the seed 
or while the grasses sown are to be used in producing 
hay and before they are to be used as pastures. But 
where it is desired so to use them there can be no 
objection to such action, providing they are used with 
discretion and judgment. When used, the kinds to 
apply, the respective amounts, and the methods of ap- 
plying them will be the same as those submitted for 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 359 

fertilizing permanent pastures. (See page 392.) 

When temporary pastures are to be fertilized, farm- 
yard manure, reduced or unreduced, will usually give 
better results than anything else that can be applied. 
It is pre-eminently adapted to such a use, as it stimu- 
lates growth in the grass during all the season of growth 
by the nutriment which it furnishes ; in winter it pro- 
tects the roots from the adverse influences of cold 
winds and frost; in summer it acts as a mulch, thus 
protecting the plants more or less from the influences 
of drought. By increasing root development in the 
soil, it adds much to the available plant food for the 
crops that follow. The fertilizer may be applied by 
spreading it over the pasture evenly at any season of 
the year that may be convenient, but to apply it during 
the first months of grazing will to some extent cover 
a part of the new growth made, so that it cannot be 
eaten by the stock. Late autumn and early winter are 
the most suitable seasons for such applications, because 
of the lessened pressure of farm work; because of the 
protection which it gives to the grasses and because of 
great stimulus which it gives to the growth of these 
as soon as the growth begins in the spring through the 
nutriment carried down to the grass by the spring rains. 
When the snowfall is not too heavy, it may be applied 
with much advantage during all the season when the 
ground is frozen. 

The chief objections to applying farmyard manure 
thus have been urged : First, when applied fresh, many 
weed seeds which will grow later are carried in it; sec- 
ond, much of it is lost through the wasting of early 



360 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

rains; and, third, the pasture resulting will be distaste- 
ful to stock. The answers to these objections are : First, 
it is onlv where careless farming prevails that noxious 
weed seeds abound ; second, the loss of fertilization 
through washing is not great excej^t on side hills being 
less than the loss which occurs by handling manure in 
any other way; third, while the grazing for a week or 
two may be distasteful to live stock, this distastefulness 
soon leaves it entirely, so that the forage will be all 
eaten by the stock. To destroy weed seeds on well 
managed farms by fermenting the manure would be 
a very expensive process, because of the great loss of 
nitrogen in the manure during the fermenting. It is 
probably the most expensive process that can be adopt- 
ed in fighting weeds. The practice which draws manure 
from the stables and applies it on the land is an excel- 
lent one. 

When the beneficent results from applying farmyard 
manure are considered, it is somewhat surprising that 
more attention is not given to the manufacture of the 
same, in areas where the necessity for purchasing com- 
mercial fertilizers exists. It would seem quite possible 
for the farmer to purchase live stock, if necessary, and 
to purchase food, especially grain food, on which to 
feed them, without loss, thus getting the fertilizer as 
a reward for the labor. That would be a much cheaper 
method of obtaining fertilizer than buying it in hard 
cash. 

The renewing of temporary pastures is not nearly 
so important as the renewing of permanent pastures, 
because of the temporary character of the former. The 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 361 

renewing of permanent pastures is discussed in Chap- 
ter XVI. (see page 392). The methods of renewing 
these will also apply, in great part, at least, to the re- 
newal of temporary pastures. 

Influence on Succeeding Crops. — Although the true 
grass crops are not nitrogen gatherers in the sense in 
which clover and other legumes are, yet it is important 
that they shall be grown in rotation, in all or nearly 
all instances, when tilling arable soils. Growing them 
thus in the rotation is less necessary when clovers form 
a part of the regular rotation, but even when clovers 
are grown, it will usually be found advantageous to 
grow grasses also. Among the benefits which result 
from growing grasses in the rotation are the following: 
1. They supply the land with humus. 2. They fur- 
nish plant food in a more readily available form. 3. 
They tend to check the growth and increase of weeds. 

It is not easy to over-estimate the value of a supply 
of humus in the soil. It would probably be correct to 
say that it is well nigh impossible to grow good crops 
without keeping the land sufficiently supplied with 
humus, or in other words, vegetable matter. Such mat- 
ter in the soil promotes aeration in stiff soils and ren- 
ders them more friable, increases the power of all soils 
to hold moisture, aids in the chemical transformation 
of inorganic substances in the soil and renders sub- 
stantial service in preventing soils from being washed 
away by an excess of water or from being lifted by the 
winds. Some soils, more especially those composed of 
fine clay particles or fine deposit when long cultivated 
without any replenishment of humus, become so im- 



362 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

pacted that the air does not readily penetrate them 
sufficiently, to the great detriment of . the crops which 
grow upon them. Grass roots growing in the same 
render them more friable by separating the particles, 
and, consequently, more easily tilled. The labor of 
pulverizing these soils is lessened in proportion as these 
are present. The aid thus rendered to aeration will 
be readily apparent, since the humus substances that 
have been distributed between the earth particles are 
easily penetrated by the air. The extent to which such 
vegetable substances increase the power of soils to hold 
moisture is very great. They act like a sponge in the 
soil, arresting moisture going downward or upward and 
holding it for the growing crops. The service thus 
rendered in leechy soils is even more valuable than in 
those that are retentive; hence, interjecting these crops 
frequently into the rotation is one of the surest safe- 
guards against drought. The way in which they trans- 
form inert plant life in the soil in their decay into 
active or valuable plant food cannot be discussed here. 
The fact only can be stated, and it is one of much 
significance to the farmer. The influence of certain 
grass plants in preventing washing and gullying is fur- 
ther discussed in Chapter XVI. (see page 399). The 
extent to which the lifting of light soils by wind is les- 
sened is largely dependent on the kind or kinds of 
grasses grown and the frequency with which they are 
grown. Those grasses with a strong and matted root 
system, as quack grass, best serve this end. The influ- 
ence of some of these grasses in thus preventing soils 



TEMPORARY PASTURES. 363 

from lifting after they have been ploughed up is, in 
some instances, felt for at least three years. 

While the grasses proper do not, like clovers, add 
in the same way to plant food in the soil, they do add 
materially to the supply of available plant food. Dur- 
ing the processes of growth they search out and take 
up plant food from the soil and subsoil, a part of which 
is retained in the roots broken up and in the stubbles 
that are buried. These, in their decay, furnish such 
food for the crops that follow them in a form that is 
easily accessible. The grass crops, in a sense, act the 
part of scavengers in the soil for the crops that come 
after them. Sir J. B. Lawes has estimated that when 
grass lands are broken 5 to 10 tons of dry matter, roots, 
leaves and stubbles are deposited in one acre by the grass 
crop. 

Grass crops check the growth of weeds in the soil in 
various ways. In some instances they crowd them out, 
as in the case of blue grass ; in some, as when mowed 
and properly pastured, they prevent them from seed- 
ing; and in others, as when they are broken for a few 
years, they cause the seeds of many weeds to perish 
that are lying in the soils. Pastures and meadows of 
any lengthened duration render most effective service 
in this way, as is evidenced by their comparative clean- 
liness when. first broken up. 

So beneficent are the influences from introducing 
grass crops frequently into the rotation, that it is 
probably correct to say that the instances are few in 
which successful crop husbandry can be long conducted 
in their absence. Due attention to this question would 
Grasses — 24. 



364 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

go far toward revolutionizing farming in wide areas 
of the United States and Canada. Particularly would 
this be true of much of the South, of the corn belt in 
the Mississippi basin and of nearly all of the wheat belt 
in the American and Canadian Northwest. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PEEMANEISTT PASTURES. 

Permanent pastures, as the name would indicate, are 
those which are grown continuously on the same land 
for a successive number of years of considerable dura- 
tion, or for all time. Sometimes they are practically 
composed of but a single grass ; in other instances and 
more frequently, they are composed of a variety of grass- 
es which have much power to remain in the land. The 
dominant idea, underlying their growth, is to crowd 
into the pasture, as many of the enduring grasses that 
furnish valuable grazing, as can be grown successfully 
together for a term of years, and which at the same time, 
make the bulk of their growth at different periods of the 
growing season. But since some of these are slow in 
attaining a maximum of growth, taking as much as three 
or four years, in some instances, to accomplish this, seed 
of short-lived varieties is frequently sown also to aid in 
providing a full supply of grazing, while the slow ma- 
turing varieties are attaining a maximum of develop- 
ment. When the pasture is once secured, it is, or ought 
to be, the aim to maintain it in undiminishing product- 
iveness by keeping it free from weeds and by stimu- 
lating growth with fertilizers. 

Permanent pastures composed of mixed grasses have 
not been extensively grown on this continent. It is, 



366 GRASSES AND HOW TO CROW THEM. 

therefore, scarcely possible to speak of them from the 
standpoint of successful experience. The attention of 
agriculturists has not been centered on them for the 
reason among others, that land has been abundant and 
because of this, the necessity has not been greatly felt 
for growing pastures on the intensive plan. 

That permanent pastures, in one form or another, 
may be grown and should be grown in all parts of the 
continent is certainly true. That they may be grown, 
in some localities with more of relative advantage than 
in others, is also true. That they can be grown on this 
continent, as successfully as the permanent pastures of 
Great Britain and Holland, is not true, except of those 
sections of the country which have a similar climate. It 
can only be true of such areas as have a climate that 
is moist, and in which rain falls in ample supply dur- 
ing the greater portion of the growing season, and where 
the growing season covers a large portion of the year. 
The advice to use formulas for laying down these pas- 
tures, similar to those used in laying down the same 
in Great Britain, where the conditions are not the 
same, has not been good ; it has given rise to more or 
less of prejudice against the idea of permanent pas- 
tures, mixed in character. 

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PERMANENT PASTURES. 

Permanent pastures in America may be divided into 
three classes. These are pastures composed of grass- 
es indigenous in character ; pastures composed of one 
or more grasses that have been introduced; and pas- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 367 

tures composed of grasses, indigenous and introduced. 
Which of these should be grown must be determined by 
the individual needs of each farm and the conditions 
relating to growth which appertain to the same. 

Indigenous Permanent Pastures. — These are pastures 
made up of a single grass or of a variety of grasses, that 
are native to the locality. In some instances, they are 
substantially composed of a single grass ; as for instance 
blue grass; in other instances, many grasses grow in 
them ; such are the pastures of the open range. These 
pastures are established by the hand of nature, and usu- 
ally in areas where cultivation is not practicable. Under 
such conditions, it is questionable whether the attempt 
should be made to change the character of these pastures 
by scattering the seed of other grasses. Of course, it is 
different where cultivation is carried on. But such pas- 
tures may be maintained in undiminished productive- 
ness, by the way in which they are grazed, and by sup- 
plementing careful grazing by such measures, as the re- 
moval of encroaching shade when necessary and fertiliz- 
ing when practicable. 

Introduced Permanent Pastures. — These may be 
composed of a single grass, as in the case of Russian 
brome or of a very limited number, as in the case 
of Kentucky blue and white clover, introduced into 
areas from which the forest has been cleared away. 
They may also be composed of a number of grasses 
suited to growth in the district in which they are 
grown. The number of varieties that may thus be 
grown will vary with the conditions. Usually, how- 
ever, it is difficult, under any conditions, to maintain 



368 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

undiminished growth in each of a number of grasses, 
comprising more than half a dozen varieties for a long- 
term of years. 

Indigenous and Introduced Permanent Pastures. — 
These are composed of grasses, native to the country 
or introduced, and in various combinations. Such, for 
instance, is a permanent pasture, composed of Kentucky 
blue grass, indigenous to Kentucky and certain of the 
adjoining states, with orchard grass and white clover 
added to the same ; redtop, indigenous to the low-lying 
lands of Minnesota, with timothy and alsike clover add- 
ed ; and western rye grass, indigenous to the American 
and Canadian Northwest, with Russian brome added. 
In growing permanent pastures, it should be the aim 
to utilize valuable indigenous varieties to the greatest 
extent practicable, since there can be no doubt about 
the permanence of these. 

Duration of Permanent Pastures. — Although the 
name would imply, that these pastures shall be grown 
indefinitely, the idea must not be pressed too far. Some 
of them are, of necessity, permanent as, when growing 
on the uncultivable range, or in arable areas, where 
cultivation is not practicable, because of stones or rocks 
in the land, or because of the hilly or broken character 
of the land. Some of them are, practically, permanent 
from choice, as when grown on land, pre-eminently 
adapted to growing these. Such are some of the pas- 
tures of England, more than a hundred years laid down. 
Again, permanent pastures are of limited duration. 
They are sown on ordinary lands and are composed of 
a limited number of grasses, which in time so decrease 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 369 

in yield as to render it desirable to supplant them with 

• 

others, for which the ground has been so prepared, that 
they are likely to produce more abundantly than the 
former, if left unbroken. Under arable conditions, 
this form of permanent grazing is likely to be much 
more extensively adopted than any other. The per- 
manency of such pastures will be largely determined 
by the degree of production. 

GRASSES ADAPTED TO VARIOUS SOILS. 

In laying down permanent pastures, due regard must 
be had not only to climatic conditions but also to those 
of soil. The mistake of trying to grow a grass on soil 
uncongenial to it, is equally great with that of trying 
to grow any kind of grain, under similar conditions. 
It can only result in failure. Adaptation to soil con- 
ditions with these grasses, grown in combination will 
now be considered. 

For Upland Pastiwcs. — On ordinary soils, combina- 
tions of grasses that will give the best results will vary 
considerably with latitude and longitude. The best 
single pasture for such a use in the northeastern states 
and the eastern provinces of Canada, is Kentucky blue 
grass; in the southeastern and southern states, Ber- 
muda grass ; in the region which has eastern Kansas 
for its center, probably orchard grass ; in the American 
and Canadian Northwest, Russian brome grass north- 
ward and tall oat grass southward ; and west of the 
Cascades, small white clover or even the medium red 
which has much permanency. In the locality first des- 
ignated the best mixture on such uplands would include 



370 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Kentucky blue grass, timothy, orchard grass, redtop, 
meadow fescue, and tall oat grass, useful probably in 
the order named. Whether Russian brome grass would 
serve a good purpose in such pastures has not yet been 
determined in practice. There are some grounds to 
fear that it might be aggressive overmuch. The clovers 
would include small white and, in some instances, the 
medium red and alfalfa. In that designated secondly, 
the principal grasses would include orchard grass,- tall 
oat grass, redtop and, in some instances, timothy or 
blue grass. The clovers would include the small white, 
Japan, buffalo and alfalfa, according to the locality. 
In that named thirdly, orchard grass, tall oat grass and 
meadow fescue, with white clover and alfalfa would 
probably make the most suitable mixture. In that 
named fourthly, would be Russian brome, western rye 
and timothy and, in some instances, redtop. In that 
named fifthly, would be Russian brome, tall oat and 
meadow fescue. And in that named lastly, may be 
included almost every valuable grass and clover grown 
in the United States. 

For Slough Lands. — The best single grass for mak- 
ing a permanent pasture in low lying lands in the 
North, is probably Russian brome, with redtop as a 
close second. In the South, redtop is deserving of first 
place. The grasses that will figure most prominently 
in mixtures in these places, include Russian brome, 
redtop, fowl meadow, timothy, Kentucky blue and prob- 
ably perennial rye and meadow foxtail. These are 
named in the order of all round relative value, but the 
comparative scarcity of the seed of fowl meadow grass 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 371 

may keep it from being given a prominent place in such 
mixtures. In the South, the best yielding grasses in 
such a mixture will include redtop and white clover 
and probably perennial rye but in many parts of the 
South, nearly all the grasses named may be used in 
the mixture. West of the Cascades all may be in- 
cluded. 

For Sandy Lands. — To obtain permanent grasses, 
that are suitable for sandy lands, furnishes a problem 
that is not easily solved. The three best grasses for 
the purpose are Russian brome, Western rye and Ber- 
muda grasses; the clovers will include the Japan* and 
buffalo. For the South, there is no other clover that will 
prove satisfactory on light sandy land, but in wet sea- 
sons the small white may grow well ; alfalfa may also be 
sometimes used. For the Xorth and West, the best of 
the three grasses named, viewed from the standpoint of 
utility and permanence, is Russian brome. The dis- 
tribution of Western rye has not been so well worked 
out as that of Russian brome, hence its value for south- 
ern conditions is not yet well understood. For such soils 
in the South, Bermuda grass is without a peer. Its 
adaptation for these is pre-eminent. 

For Dry Areas. — The problem of furnishing suita- 
ble permanent grasses for dry areas is even more diffi- 
cult than that of furnishing the same for sandy soils 
where the conditions may not be so dry. Of the really 
valuable grasses grown under cultivation, Russian 
brome is probably the best for the Xorth and West and 
Bermuda for the South. On dry hard clay soils, Cana- 
dian blue grass grows with much tenacity. Southward, 



372 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

velvet grass grows under dry conditions and the same 
is true of Texas blue grass. Tall oat grass has also 
served a good purpose in permanent pastures in dry 
areas in the mountain bench lands. For arid plains, 
the Australian saltbush has served a good purpose and 
it may be that blue grama will be helpful on dry range 
lands. The best clovers for dry areas are the Japan 
and the buffalo, but under some conditions, alfalfa could 
be grown in the mixture. 

For Wet Soils. — For soils that are so wet that they 
cannot be tilled at certain portions of the year, Rus- 
sian brome, redtop and fowl meadow are probably the 
three best grasses and next to these Kentucky blue. 
There is perhaps no good pasture grass, that will stand 
conditions of prolonging wetness in the soil better than 
Russian brome; redtop and fowl meadow are also good 
but, of course, neither w r ill endure wet beyond a certain 
degree. In hot Aveather, watery saturation is more hurt- 
ful than in cool weather. On lands that are springy in 
character, blue grass makes good pasture, even when 
the soil is thrown up in hummocks. For providing per- 
manent pastures under irrigation, Russian brome, Ken- 
tucky blue, red top, timothy, alsike clover and alfalfa 
have high adaptation. 

For Growing in Shade. — Orchard grass has long been 
assigned the premier place for being grown in the shade 
among the cultivated grasses of America. Russian 
brome, however, has considerable adaptation for such 
situations; whether this adaptation will equal that of 
orchard grass has not been determined in America. 
Tall oat grass will also grow fairly well in such situa- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 373 

tions and the same is true of Kentucky blue. In the 
Koitb, a combination of orchard grass, Russian brome 
and Kentucky blue would answer well in groves and 
parks ; and for the South, a combination of orchard, 
tall oat and probably perennial rye. 

For Growing in Marshes. — In marshes where water 
stands much of the year, it is doubtful if any pasture 
grasses can be introduced that will give a better return 
than those which nature may have planted there. Wire 
grass (Carex vulpinoidea) is by far the most valuable 
grass for such situations and it is not a pasture grass. 
(See p. 295.) Blue joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) 
will grow in situations that would be too wet for red- 
top and makes good hay but the results from grazing it 
on lands so wet as those congenial to its growth, would 
probably prove hurtful to the future growth of the 
grass. 

GRASSES FOE THE STATES AND PROVINCES. 

The grasses best suited for permanent pastures, 
grown alone or in various combinations, as adapted to 
groups of states within the union or to groups of prov- 
inces in Canada will now be considered. The group- 
ing of these will be the same as in Chapter XV. which 
discusses Temporary Pastures. 

For the Northeastern States.— -For the states and 
provinces of this group see p. 312. The best perma- 
nent pasture in all these states, spontaneous in char- 
acter, is Kentucky blue grass and small white clover. 
These grasses, especially where they have been once 
grown, will soon take possession of grounds that have 



# 

374 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM, 

been cultivated, to the exclusion of all or nearly all 
other grasses and clovers, though they should not be 
sown again. This follows on the condition that young 
trees are not allowed to crowd them or overshadow them 
by their shade ; such a result will not follow, where 
live stock graze through the season. These two grasses 
would then take possession of the soil in two or three 
years to the exclusion of the growth of trees; they will 
likewise take possession of land from which timber has 
been removed, when thus given a chance to grow. But 
the transformation in both instances will be more rapid, 
if seed is scattered in the early autumn or early spring, 
even though it should not be harrowed. For this pur- 
pose, it should seldom be necessary to sow more "than 
7 pounds of Kentucky blue grass and 3 pounds of 
white clover per acre. The pastures, on broken and 
rugged land in the states and provinces of this group, 
will usually be composed of these two grasses. For 
average soils in this group, if a limited number of grass- 
es is chosen with a view to provide mixed pastures for 
a more or less definite term of years, the following 
would probably serve the purpose best: 

Lbs. Per Acre. 

Timothy 4 

Orchard 4 

Redtop 3 

Russian brome 4 

Medium red 3 

Mammoth 2 

Total 20 

If Russian brome is omitted, as its behavior in mixed 
pastures under American cultivation is not yet well un- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 375 

derstood, add one pound each, in lieu thereof, to the 
timothy and red top and two pounds to the orchard 
grass. The red clovers are sown in these as in all the 
mixtures in which they are included to aid in furnishing 
pasture the year following that in which the grasses are 
sown, with the expectation that they will soon entirely 
disappear. On certain soils, where alfalfa grows read- 
ily it may be sown in lieu of mammoth clover, using 
the same amount of seed per acre. Where the lands 
are naturally dry, it may be well to substitute meadow 
fescue for redtop, using the amount of seed named 
as suitable for redtop. Kentucky blue grass and white 
clover would be likely to come into the mixed pastures, 
at all permanent in character, in two or three years, 
in all or nearly all the states and provinces in the group 
now being considered. Before many years, they would 
probably be the leading factors in the same, hence it 
is not usually necessary to sow them. The same is also 
true of them in some of the other groups of states. 
Where it is not, however, it mav be advisable in some 
instances to add a few pounds of blue grass seed and 
a little white clover seed to the formulas o'iven. 

For low lying lands, naturally moist, but on which 
water does not lie to any appreciable extent, the follow- 
ing grasses would answer for mixed pastures of con- 
siderable duration, but not laid down for an indefinite 

period : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 6 

Redtop 6 

Russian brome 5 

Alsike clover 3 

Total 20 



376 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

When mixed pastures are to be laid down for a long 
term of years, in these states and provinces, good, well- 
prepared and naturally moist land should be chosen. 
The following varieties may be used in the mixture and 
all of them, it is thought, with some profit : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 3 

Orchard 3 

Redtop 3 

Meadow fescue 3 

Tall oat 2 

Meadow foxtail 2 

Fowl meadow 2 

Medium red clover 2 

Mammoth clover 2 

Alsike clover 2 

Total 24 

Those who do not care to hazard meadow foxtail and 
fowl meadow, because of the difficulty of getting good 
seed, could probably with certainty of success, sow 4 
pounds per acre of Russian brome instead. This grass 
was not included in the formula for the reason, only 
that experience in growing it in such mixtures in Amer- 
ica, is as yet practically wanting. 

On sandy lands in these states and provinces nothing 
better probably can be sown for permanent pastures 
than Russian brome, using 15 pounds of seed per acre, 
and for stiff hard clays nothing would seem to serve the 
purpose better than Canadian blue grass (Poa com- 
pressa), sowing 12 pounds of seed per acre along with 
3 or 4 pounds of medium red clover. 

For the Southeastern States. — For the states includ- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 377 

ed in this group, see p. 344. The best permanent pas- 
ture produced by a single grass in this group of states 
will not be the same in all of these. In the uplands 
of the Alleghanies, it will be Kentucky blue grass or 
meadow fescue. In West Virginia, a large part of 
Kentucky and a part of Tennessee, it will be Kentucky 
blue grass. In all or nearly all, the territory not in 
areas designated, it will be Bermuda grass. But in 
Eastern Texas and also some other localities, it may 
be Texas blue grass. The behavior of Texas blue grass 
and Bermuda grass, growing together, has not apparent- 
ly been sufficiently tested to justify drawing conclu- 
sions, as to the outcome ; if these two would grow to- 
gether, they would furnish permanent pasture, winter 
and summer. 

For permanent pastures of limited duration on aver- 
age soils in these states, the following grasses will an- 
swer for much of the area, but not equally well for all 

of it : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Orchard grass 5 

Redtop 5 

Meadow fescue 5 

Tall oat grass 5 

White clover 2 

Japan clover 2 

Total 24 

Under some conditions, it may not be necessary to 
sow the clovers named, as the seed may be in the soil 
already; but in such instances it would seem advisable 
to sow at least 6 pounds of each of the grasses named ; 
2 pounds per acre of sheep's fescue may also improve 



378 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the grazing. This mixture will not likely provide suf- 
ficient pasture on poor soil to justify sowing it on the 
same. Bermuda grass will serve the purpose better. 

On bottom lands and alluvial soils, such as are found 
in river basins, the same formula will answer but it 
may prove helpful to add to it 2 pounds each per acre 
of perennial rye grass and meadow foxtail. 

For the Canadian, Northwest. — For the provinces in- 
cluded in this group, see p. 346. The best single per- 
manent pasture grass for this entire area is Russian 
brome. How long it may be grown on the same land 
without decrease in the yield, has not yet been proved 
but when renewed by suitable harrowing and ploughing 
every few years (see p. 188) it would last for many 
years. 

The best mixture of grasses for permanent pastures at 

the present time is the following: 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Russian brome 6 

Western rye 6 

Timothy 6 

Total 18 

In dry areas, it would probably be preferable to sow 
only Russian brome as timothy will not do well in 
these; where Russian brome is sown alone, it may be 
renewed, as indicated above so as to make it perma- 
nent. In some of the moister sections of the group 
of provinces, it may be helpful to add a few pounds 
of redtop to the above formula and in others a few 
pounds of Kentucky blue grass ; but it would not avail 
to sow either, where the rainfall is light nor is it wise 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 379 

under such conditions to sow large quantities of seed, 
'as the moisture is not enough to sustain a dense sward. 
In the irrigated districts toward the mountains, Rus- 
sian brome grass, alone or with alsike and white clover, 
would make excellent permanent pasture. 

For the Upper Mississippi Basin.— For the states in 
this group, see p. 347. In eastern Minnesota, all of 
Wisconsin, much of Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa, the 
best permanent pasture grass is Kentucky blue ; in east- 
ern North and South Dakota and in a part of Nebraska, 
Russian brome, and in Kansas and part of Missouri, 
orchard grass and in some localities Russian brome. 
In northeastern Minnesota and also in northern Wiscon- 
sin, Kentucky blue grass and white clover make excel- 
lent permanent pasture and in the same medium red 
clover will endure for a term of years. 

In the blue grass region of the area named north of 
parallel 40 degrees, the following combination of grasses 
may be expected to give good results : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 4 

Redtop 6 

Russian brome 4 

Orchard grass 2 

Meadow fescue 2 

Tall oat grass z 

Medium red clover 2 

Mammoth clover 2 

Total 24 

South of parallel 40 and also in the blue grass re- 
gion, the above formula should be changed to that given 
below : 

Grasses — 25. 



380 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 3 

Redtop 3 

Meadow fescue 4 

Orchard grass 6 

Russian brome 4 

Tall oat grass 2 

Medium red clover 3 

Total 25 

Where blue grass is not already plentiful in the soil, 
it would be advisable to add 5 pounds of good pure 
seed per acre to each of the above formulas. In some 
instances, it may also be advisable to add one pound of 
small white clover per acre. 

For low humus soils north of parallel 40, the follow- 
ing mixture should prove satisfactory: 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 6 

Redtop 6 

Russian brome 6 

Orchard grass 2 

Meadow fescue 2 

Alsike clover 3 

Total 25 

For the same class of soils south of parallel 40, the 

following formula is submitted : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 3 

Redtop 6 

Orchard grass 6 

Meadow fescue 3 

Russian brome 4 

Tall oat grass 2 

Alsike clover 2 

Total 26 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 381 

For average soils in eastern Kansas and the territory 
adjacent, the following formula is submitted as being 
at least approximately suitable : 



& 



Lbs. per Acre. 

Redtop , 4 

Orchard grass 6 

Meadow fescue 4 

Russian brome 3 

Tall oat grass 3 

Medium red 2 

Alfalfa 3 

Total , 25 

For the eastern Dakotas, the mixture for permanent 
pastures would be the same as for the Canadian North- 
west, (Seep. 378.) 

For the Semi- Arid Belt. — For the states included in 
this group, see p. 348. In that portion of these states 
which cannot successfully be cultivated, it is problem- 
atical if the range grasses, which now occupy the soil, 
can be supplemented by others that will serve the pur- 
pose better. But in such portions as may be culti- 
vated, not including the foot-hills, the following mix- 
ture should furnish such pastures from the northern 

border of Oklahoma to the Canadian boundary and 
east of the Rocky mountains : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Russian brome , 10 

Western rye 10 

Total 20 

On the bench lands of the foot-hills, the mixture 
would include the grasses now submitted : 



382 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 4 

Russian brome 6 • 

Western rye 4 

Alfalfa 4 

Total 18 

In the winter wheat growing area west of the Cas- 
cades, which has Moscow, Idaho, for its center, the fol- 
lowing, it is thought, are the best grasses to grow to- 
gether : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Russian brome 7 

Meadow fescue 5 

Tall oat 5 

Alfalfa 3 

Total 20 

It is questionable if these grasses will stand grazing 
indefinitely without renewal where the precipitation is 
so light as in the area now being considered. 

For the Irrigated Western Valleys. — In the absence 
of experience, it would not be possible to state which 
grass or combination of grasses would prove most sat- 
isfactory in providing permanent grazing on the irri- 
gated lands of mountain states. The most productive 
single plant is alfalfa, but it can be grazed safely by 
horses, mules and swine, when grown alone. A limited 
amount, however, can be grown with other grasses, 
without incurring much hazard to cattle and sheep, also 
while being grazed. The various clovers assume more 
of permanency in their habit of growth in such situ- 
ations ; hence it would be possible to grow grazing for a 
number of vears from medium red clover but the same 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 383 

objection, though in a less degree, would apply to the 
grazing of these alone, that applies to the grazing of 
alfalfa. '~No single grass probably would furnish as 
much grazing especially in the more northerly of these 
valleys, as Russian brome grown under irrigation, but 
timothy and indeed all the leading grasses should suc- 
ceed well. 

The following mixture should give good results : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 6 

Russian brome . .. 5 

Meadow fescue 5 

Tall oat 3 

Alsike clover 3 

Alfalfa 2 

Total 24 

A good permanent pasture could also be grown from 

the following simple formula : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy .12 

Alsike clover 3 

Alfalfa 3 

Small white 2 

Total 20 

For Areas West of Cascades. — For the area comprised 
in this region, see p. 351. Several grasses, possessed 
of much permanence, may be grown alone for grazing 
on these Pacific slopes and in the tide lands beside the 
sea. These include timothy, orchard grass and alsike 
clover; timothy and alsike clover may be grown al- 
most indefinitely on river bottoms and tide lands, but 
medium red clover would distribute the grazing more 



384 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

evenly. The formula for sowing would be at least 

approximately : 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 10 

Medium red 5 

Alsike 3 

Total 18 

To provide grazing of the most permanent character 
the following mixture is submitted: 

Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 6 

Orchard 3 

Meadow fescue 3 

Tall oat 2 

Meadow foxtail 2 

Sheep's fescue 2 

Medium red 3 

Alsike 3 

Total 24 

Small white clover may be expected to come into 
any permanent pasture in this region, though not sown, 
and in some sections also Kentucky blue grass. 

MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS ON PERMANENT PASTURES. 

Because of the permanency of the pastures, that are 
now being considered, it is highly important that when 
these are laid down, the work shall be done in a way, 
that will most effectively secure the object sought. 
Questions which appertain to the laying down of these 
pastures and to their proper maintenance will now be 
discussed. 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 385 

Bowing Permanent Pastures. — Much that has been 
said in Chapter XV. , with reference to the sowing of 
temporary pastures, will also apply to tjie growing of 
permanent pastures. See p. 353. Since the latter, how- 
ever, are to continue for years it is of far more im- 
portance relatively, that a good stand of the plants 
shall be secured. To insure the same, every care should 
be taken in the preparation of the land, in the sowing 
of the seed and in the care of the pastures, until well 
established. 

Grasses for permanent pastures should be sown on 
land that is at least reasonably clean, in a good condi- 
tion of tilth and well supplied with plant food. To 
secure the requisite cleanness, they should either come 
after the bare fallow or after a cultivated crop to which 
clean cultivation has been given. When sown in the 
autumn, they should, as a rule, be sown on summer 
fallowed land. When the work of preparation has 
been well done, the land will, unless in exceptional in- 
stances, be in an excellent condition of preparation for 
receiving the seed. If a crop of clover is ploughed un- 
der in the spring and the land subsequently summer 
fallowed by working it only on the top, the grass plants 
sown subsequently in the autumn should start with 
much vigor. 

When sown in the spring, it may also in some in- 
stances be wise to summer fallow the land the pre- 
vious season, and to bury at least one crop, as for in- 
stance peas, to Supply the land with the necessary hu- 
mus and plant food. In other instances, it will an- 
swer to sow the seed after one crop of corn well cared 



386 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

for has been grown on the land or, what would proba- 
bly be better, after two crops have been grown in suc- 
cession on the same. If these pastures are not laid 
down on clean land, their subsequent value will be great- 
ly lessened and the labor of caring for them will be 
greatly increased. There may also be instances when 
these grasses may be made to follow a crop of Canada 
field peas or of cow peas, the latter having been culti- 
vated while growing. One objection to sowing the 
crop on corn land is found in the corn roots which in- 
terfere somewhat Avith the proper covering of the seed. 
It is a great mistake to sow grasses for permanent 
pastures on land low in fertility. They will not start 
vigorously on such land and no subsequent fertilizing 
will secure as good growth in the plants as if they had 
been given a good start at the first. If farm yard ma- 
nure is used as a fertilizer, it should be applied a year 
in advance, unless it is known to possess but few weed 
seeds. Fertility, applied by ploughing in a nitrogen 
gathering crop is usually very effective in promoting 
growth in the young grasses, since these in addition 
to supplying plant food act favorably on the mechan- 
ical and chemical condition of the land, but where it 
is necessary commercial fertilizers may be applied. 
Those of course should be used such as the weeds of 
the land require in each particular locality and they 
ought to be incorporated with the soil near the surface 
a short time before the seed is sown or applied when it 
is sown or subsequently. As a rule, the phosphoric acid 
and potash are applied previous to or at the time of 
sowing the seed, and the nitrogen a little later ; but they 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 387 

should be used in quantities sufficient to secure good 
growth in the young grass plants. 

The soil should be well and deeply stirred. In some 
instances, subsoiling will be helpful and in others it 
is not necessary. It should be the aim to have some- 
time elapse between the last ploughing given to the land 
and the sowing of the seed and to stir frequently in 
the interval with harrow or cultivator to secure a clean 
seed bed. After Canada field peas, cow peas or corn, 
potatoes or other root crops it is usually preferable to 
use such implements in preparing the land as stir the 
soil on and below the surface but which do not over- 
turn it; it is greatly important to have the seed bed, 
fine, firm and moist when the seed is sown. 

Usually, autumn sowing will be preferable; this is 
true of the South and, in many instances, of the North, 
though not of all. In the South, they should be sown 
as soon as the rains of fall come ; in the North, if sown 
in the autumn, it should, if possible, be not later than 
August that the plants may have time to make a good 
growth before winter. Advantage should be taken of 
the moisture brought to the soil by rain, when sowing 
the seed. When sown in the spring, in the North, the 
work should be done as early as the ground is suitable 
for being worked. In the semi-arid country, the seed 
should be sown in the early spring or preferably in the 
late autumn. 

The seed may be sown by hand, after all the kinds 
selected have first been mixed ; but when this is sown 
the work should be done by an expert as it is very 
necessary that the seed should be evenlv distributed. 



388 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

When sown by hand, the plan of sowing half the seed 
when first going over the land and then crossing it 
when sowing the other half is qnite certain to secure 
a more even distribution of seeds that differ in weight 
than by sowing them all at one cast. When sown with 
a hand seeder, now in use, which is wheeled over the 
ground, a more even distribution of the seed will be 
secured. It may be necessary, in some instances, to sow 
the coarser seeds together and then to go over the land 
a second time sowing those that are finer. This may 
be necessary because the small and large seeds are not 
likely to feed out evenly, when sown all at once; the 
opportunity is thus also furnished for running the har- 
row over the land after the first distribution of seed 
has been made in order to cover the seeds more deeply. 
In all or nearly all instances, some covering with the 
harrow is necessary; whether the roller should follow 
will depend upon soil and climatic conditions. There 
may be instances in which the seeds may be sown with 
the grain drill as when only one or two varieties are 
sown which require a fairly deep covering. 

Usually these grasses are not sown with a nurse crop. 
Whether a crop shall be obtained from the ground, 
the season that grasses are sown, is not greatly im- 
portant relatively ; the great matter is to secure a good, 
vigorous and uniform stand of the grasses. When 
not sown with a nurse crop, the mower should be run 
over the ground as often as necessary to prevent the 
weeds and stronger plants from producing undue shade. 
Close attention should be given to the matter and it 
should be done frequently enough to make it unnec- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 389 

cessary to remove any of the weeds or grass so cut from 
the land. If a nurse crop is sown and in some in- 
stances, it may be an advantage to have it very thinly 
sown and always cut for hay. Such a crop may be 
helpful in preserving lands from drifting or in pro- 
tecting the fall sown grasses in the winter. 

Grazing Permanent Pastures. — Uniformity in the 
method of grazing permanent pastures and in the man- 
agement of the same cannot be practiced. Where the 
conditions are not the same, the general treatment of 
pastures will not be the same. Wherever they are, 
the aim should be to keep them clean and productive and 
so to manage them that the survival of all the plants 
sown shall be encouraged. 

Usually, it is not considered good practice to graze 
permanent pastures the same year that they are sown 
but to this there may be some exceptions, as on soils 
lacking in firmness and where the rainfall is not plenti- 
ful. Close grazing, especially the first season, has the 
effect of hindering development in root growth the 
vigor of which is encouraged by growth in the top. 
The plan of mowing and leaving what is cut to mulch 
the soil is much better. When the seed is sown in 
the spring, the pasture should be ready for grazing the 
next season, but when it is sown in the fall it should 
furnish moderate grazing the following year ; care 
should be taken not to graze it off too early in the 
spring. The second year these pastures should not be 
cut for hay as the development of the crop would tend 
to smother the Aveaker grasses. 

The closeness of the grazing, that may be allowed 



390 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

without injuring the grass, is much influenced by soil 
and climate. The more moist the climate and the more 
temperate, the closer may be the grazing. Close graz- 
ing where the summer heat is prolonged hinders growth 
through the escape of moisture ; and in the autumn in 
stern climates, it weakens the vitality of the plants 
by exposing them too much in the winter. On the 
other hand, insufficient grazing would result in por- 
tions of the pasture remaining uneaten, until the grasses 
had produced stems and formed heads, after which 
they are not relished. When this does happen, the 
mower should be used as soon as the heads appear and, 
where these portions of the pasture are at all consid- 
erable, should be made into hay. Where the patches 
are small, if they can be cut from time to time the 
stock will likely consume much of it in the wilted form. 
In dry areas where the soils are loose, close grazing 
should be avoided and at no time should permanent 
pastures be grazed when so wet that the danger of 
poaching is present. The close grazing of Bermuda 
grass tends to keep out weeds which might overshadow 
the grass and is, so far, to be commended but not be- 
fore the pasture has become well established. 

On the whole the practice of grazing different classes 
of animals simultaneously on the same pastures, is to 
be commended, viewed from the standpoint of the in- 
fluence which it exerts on the pastures. The tastes of 
these are different ; hence, the pastures are likely to 
be more uniformly eaten. Where for good reasons 
which may exist, it is not prudent to graze them thus, 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 391 

the plan of grazing them in succession will also tend 
to secure more of uniformity in the grazing. 

While the practice of mulching permanent pastures 
with dressings of farm yard manure is not a good one, 
unless the manure is so fermented that the weed seeds 
in it are, in the main, destroyed, that of feeding soil- 
ing food on these pastures is beneficial where the work 
is judiciously done. The food thus fed should be 
strewn on fresh ground every time that it is fed until 
the pasture is gone over with a view to secure an even 
distribution in the droppings of the animals. 

Every care should be exercised to keep weeds out of 
permanent pastures. This is best prevented by prop- 
erly cleaning the soil before laying them down. Some 
forms of noxious weed life will gradually disappear 
as the grass plants take possession of the soil. This 
is true of nearly all kinds of annuals and of many bi- 
ennials. It is different with many perennials especially 
those which multiply chiefly from underground stems ; 
among the most persistent growers in these pastures are 
the oxeye daisy (Leiicanthemwn vulgare), the Canadian 
thistle (Cirsium arvense) and ironweed (Vernonia no- 
veboracensis) . On stiff clays Canada thistles will ulti- 
mately disappear where the grazing is close and con- 
tinued for successive years, but on the other soils they 
will rather increase; oxeye daisies are also likely to 
increase. The same is true of ironweed and some other 
weeds unless cut by the mower, at least once a year, 
and grazed closely with sheep early in the season. If 
annuals and biennials are not allowed to blossom in 
such pastures, the}' will soon disappear. When peren- 



392 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

nials are not too plentiful, they may be removed by 
cutting them with the spud when practicable below the 
surface of the ground, with sufficient frequency, to ac- 
complish the end sought in a single season. Where they 
are too numerous to be thus dealt with, there is no 
other way but to tolerate their presence until the pas- 
ture is broken ; but where a proper use is made of the 
mower, the scythe and the spud, noxious weeds will 
be, at least, reduced in permanent pastures, if not en- 
tirely removed. Those who may desire to get more 
information with reference to destroying weeds are re- 
ferred to the book, " Weeds and How to Eradicate 
Them," written by the author in 1893. 

Fertilizing and Renewing. — The necessity for having 
the soil in a good condition as to fertility when perma- 
nent pastures are laid down has been dwelt upon (see 
page 392). When the land has been thus enriched, usu- 
ally no further fertilization is necessary for a feAV 
years — how many can only be determined by the needs 
of the land. But it is evident that no soil can furnish 
grazing indefinitely, especially for cattle without more 
or less of depletion in fertility because of the flesh, 
bone and milk product sold. The necessity for fertiliz- 
ing the pastures, therefore, will always exist, and the 
production from the same will be measurably propor- 
tionate to the extent of the enrichment. Inattention 
to this essential in the management of permanent pas- 
tures furnishes one reason why they are not more 
in favor with the American farmer. 

Usually commercial fertilizers are preferred for such 
manuring but farm yard manure, if it could be ob- 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 393 

tainecl practically free from weed seeds would be great- 
ly serviceable for such dressings. Muck from swamps 
and peat from bogs, when the latter is sufficiently de- 
cayed are also helpful on certain soils ; the same is 
true of the material from compost heaps, of marls, lime 
and gypsum. When applying these dressings, the cost 
of the labor and the distance to which they need to be 
drawn must be carefully considered. Light dressings 
and frequent are to be preferred to heavy and infre- 
quent dressings, as in the former instances there is less 
loss through fertility being carried away by excess of 
water. 

After the pastures are laid down, commercial fer- 
tilizers can of course be only applied on the surface. 
By whatever name these may be known in the market 
the important food elements in them for the grasses are 
7iot more than three, viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
potash. The first is more commonly applied in the 
form of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or flesh 
meal from slaughter houses and it is helpful in promot- 
ing growth in grasses and clovers. The second is used 
in such forms as ground bone, ground rock containing 
phosphates and basic slag and is especially helpful to 
the grasses. The third is used in such forms as muri- 
ate and sulphate of potash, kainit and wood ashes, and, 
although quite helpful to both grasses and clovers, it 
tends more to stimulate growth in the latter. 

Whether one or two or all three of these shall be 
applied as top dressings ; the quantities of each that 
shall be used and the frequency of the dressings must 
be determined by the needs of the soil. In some in- 



394 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

stances, only one is needed; in others, two; in yet oth- 
ers, all three. Dressings that are suitable for Con- 
necticut soils may not be suitable for those of Caro- 
lina ; and dressings that may be suitable for soil in 
one field may not be suitable for soil which is different 
in an adjoining field or in the same field. The farmer, 
therefore, who does not know the precise needs of his 
land should experiment upon small areas, until he ascer- 
tains which fertilizers and how much it will pay him to 
apply. 

Usually not more than 100 to 200 pounds of nitro- 
gen fertilizer is used per acre during one year. Two 
separate dressings of 50 to 100 pounds each are pre- 
ferred to one dressing of 100 to 200 pounds ; the first 
being given soon after growth begins and the second, 
during some moist season in the summer. When ap- 
plied in a very dry time the food in the fertilizer does 
not reach the plants until rain comes and when ap- 
plied at a time of too much moisture, or when growth 
is stagnant, the plant food may too soon leech out of 
the soil. Finely ground bone or phosphatic rock is 
a favorite dressing for grass pastures in the unreduced 
or reduced form. In the latter form, they act more 
quickly but for a period less prolonged. The dress- 
ings are usually applied in the early spring. They 
seldom exceed 200 pounds per acre and frequently not 
more than half that quantity is used. Potash is also 
applied in the spring and in some instances the har- 
row follows the application, as in the case of phos- 
phoric acid. Wood ashes are commonly applied at the 
rate of about 50 bushels per acre in the unleeched form 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 395 

and 200 bushels when leeched. Nitrogen is sometimes 
applied every year, since its effects are not abiding, 
but phosphoric acid and potash, being of slower action 
are not usually applied every year. Attention is called 
to the importance of noting carefully the percentage of 
plant food, as given by reliable analysis in the various 
fertilizers purchased; this, of course, has an important 
bearing on their value. 

Transforming Brush Lands.— On many parts of the 
continent are what are termed "brush lands." These 
are covered more or less with bushes such as witch 
hazel and willow to the extent of preventing the growth 
of grasses. These areas are more frequent on the bor- 
ders of prairie land and on some kinds of prairie. In 
other instances, the forest has been cut away and a 
dense growth of underwood in the brush stage, or a 
little larger than brush, is taking possession of the 
land. In yet other instances, fire has but recently 
passed through the forest, killing the standing timber 
and consuming much of the debris which covers the 
earth; and a thicket of young trees is again covering 
the ground. The largest areas of these lands are found 
in the northern states, and the question of transform- 
ing them into pastures, without clearing the land en- 
tirely by hand labor, is one of considerable importance. 
The method of doing this work would be, in outline, as 
follows : 

Introduce goats to browse upon the brush; the An- 
gora variety or their grades are to be preferred because 
of the relative value of the mohair. The goats will do 
their work more quickly and more effectively, if con- 
Grasses — 26. 



396 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

fined by suitable fencing to a limited area, as much 
as tliey will clean up in one or two successive years. 
If some of the young trees are so large that the goats 
cannot reach the browse, it may be necessary to fell 
them with the axe, leaving the trimming to the goats. 

At the end of the first year, in the late fall or early 
spring, grass seeds should be scattered over the land; 
these, of conrse, cannot be harrowed. Nevertheless, 
they will usually germinate on such land, except where 
the moisture is too much lacking which is sometimes 
the case amid the eastern ranges of the Rocky moun- 
tains. 

From what has been said with reference to grasses 

adapted to various parts of the continent (see pp. 373- 

384), the varieties best suited to the several localities 

may be ascertained. To simplify the matter, it would be 

correct to say, that where it is desired to remove the 

trees and bushes entirely, the following formulas would 

answer for nearly all areas in the North and South 

respectively : 

For the North — Lbs. per Acre. 

Timothy 5 

Kentucky blue 5 

Medium red clover 3 

Alsike clover 1 

Small white clover 1 

Total 15 

For the South — 

Meadow fescue 3 

Tall oat 2 

Perennial rye 3 

Orchard 3 

Japan clover • 3 

Small \white 1 

Total 15 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 397 

In the South, the autumn months would be more suit- 
able for sowing the seed. In the North, the hazard of 
losing the seed, through dry weather, would be lessened 
by sowing half the quantity one season, and the other 
half the following season ; but such hazard to seed sown 
on new land is not very great. 

At the end of. the first season or the second, accord- 
ing to the extent to which the brush has been destroyed, 
sheep should be introduced and the goats moved on to 
fresh feeding grounds, as browse, with some grass, is 
the natural food of the goats, and grass is the natural 
food of the sheep. The latter will also prevent the 
bushes and young trees from regaining a foothold on 
such pastures and will so crop down weeds that the 
grasses sown will before very long make clean and ex- 
cellent pasture. 

When grasses are sown thus on areas of "slashed 
over" forest lands, which have been run over by fire, or 
amid the standing and fallen dead timber of the fire 
swept forests yet uncut, the germination is so sure 
and the growth so rapid that these may be readily trans- 
formed into pastures, by simply sowing the seed and 
introducing live stock to. graze upon the land. In 
clearing timber lands, if they are thus laid down to 
grass, they at once become productive and will continue 
so until broken with the plough, and without the neces- 
sity of applying fertilizers for several years at least. 
Meantime the stumps, if of the hardwood, will in time 
decay and leave the land ready for the plough without 
entailing any considerable labor in their removal. This 



398 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

method of clearing land is one of the simplest and 
least expensive that can be adopted. 

When it is desired to transform forests into pas- 
tures of the park or grove order, the method of so 
changing them will, to some extent, depend upon the 
growth of trees present. When all the trees are large, 
change can be made, with less hazard to the trees that 
are left, by gradually cutting down and removing such 
as are not to remain, and by -scattering the seeds of 
such grasses as will grow in shade in the openings. 
(See p. 372.) Meantime grazing should begin to keep 
down weeds and second growth of trees. Fire should 
not be introduced to consume the debris, unless care- 
fully guarded from injuring the trees that are to re- 
main. When the forest is of trees of relatively small 
growth and thick with brush, goats may be introduced 
to kill the brush as described above (see p. 395) be- 
fore grass seeds are sown. But they may also bark 
some trees, which it may be desirable to retain. If 
fire is allowed to run over the ground in the early 
spring, to consume the fallen leaves before the grasses 
are sown, the stand of these will be made much more 
certain. 

Transforming Native Prairie Pastures. — In certain 
areas, it may be desirable to transform native prairie 
pastures into those composed of grasses, that will pro- 
vide more pasture than is furnished by the former, and 
without breaking the land with the plough or other im- 
plement of tillage. There are localities where such 
transformation can be more surely made when imple- 
ments for stirring the ground are not used than where 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 399 

they are. In these, the soils are light and the normal 
precipitation is also light. Such areas are sometimes 
found along the eastern border of the semi-arid belt 
and probably also in other localities. 

Such transformation may be made by sowing the 
seed of the grasses desired in the early spring. Close 
pasturing should follow. Where this cannot be done 
the mower should be used once or twice to remove 
shade ; where neither is done the seed sown will almost 
certainly be thrown away. 

The best grasses to sow in areas where they will 
grow are blue grass and small white clover ; timothy 
and the red clovers may sometimes be sown on upland 
prairie, alsike clover being added in low lands. There 
is much less hazard in sowing a few pounds of seed 
per acre, two or even three years in succession, than in 
sowing all the seed in one year. 

Permanent Grasses for Shifting Lands. — Some soils 
are of such a character, that when cultivated for any 
considerable time, more or less of the soil is carried 
down to lower levels and, in some instances, much of 
It is carried quite away, in solution in the water, that 
runs over the surface of the land. Gullies are formed 
with more or less frequency and of ever increasing 
size. These seriously interfere with the tilling of the 
land and with crop production ; they are at all times 
most unsightly. The best of the soil is thus carried 
down to the lower lands or washed away entirely. To 
so great an extent has this eroding process been al- 
lowed, especially in some parts of the South, that the 
further cultivation of the soil has been abandoned. 



400 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Prominent among the influences that favor such ero- 
sions are: 1. Unevenness in the surface of the land. 
The steeper the descent, the more easily does the soil 
moved downward. 2. The sandy character of the soil. 
The finer the sand, the more easily does it move. 3. 
The frequency and violence of the precipitation. Areas, 
where violent thunder storms occur 'or occasional cloud- 
bursts, are much liable to suffer from erosion. 4. Lack 
of porosity in the subsoil which prevents the quick de- 
scent of water in the soil, and the nearer the hard sub- 
soil comes to the surface, the greater is the loss of sur- 
face soil. 5. Lack of vegetable matter in the soil. The 
less of this in the soil, the less the water which it ab- 
sorbs and the less is the obstruction to the removal of 
soil particles. 

Important among the counteracting and preventive 
influences are the following: 1. Ploughing deeply so 
that the absorptive power of the ground will be in- 
creased. 2. Making parallel surface drains at such dis- 
tances as may be deemed proper along the sides of hills 
to arrest and carry descending water along rather than 
down the hill. 3. Constructing underdrains down the 
depressions laid not far from the surface and of con- 
siderable capacity to aid in carrying away the water. 
4. Laying such lands down to permanent pasture and 
maintaining them as such. 5. Planting them with for- 
est trees. Where such lands are not to be planted to 
forest, the aim should be to keep them in permanent 
pasture. 

The best grasses for such pasture in the Northwest 
is Russian brome ; in the North, a mixture of Kentucky 



PERMANENT PASTURES. 401 

blue and white clover ; and in the South, Bermuda. Be- 
fore these are sown on gullied lands, the aim should 
be to fill them by the aid of the plough and scraper; 
then to fertilize them before sowing the seed. Some 
nurse crop, as rye, may be helpful in holding the soil 
until the grasses get started. On steep side hills, it 
may prove advantageous to strew litter or straw thinly 
over the newly sown land. 

Gullies may frequently be prevented from washing 
deeper by perseveringly throwing in them rubbish, such 
as brush and cornstalks, for a time, to arrest the silt 
and then by sowing in them, and along the sides such 
soil-binding grasses as Russian brome in the North, 
and Bermuda in the South. The tendency in these 
will be to further arrest silt and to grow up through it, 
thus raising the land in the ditch gradually to a higher 
level. 

Renewing. — When permanent pastures form a good 
even sod, made up of a number of grasses, it is ques- 
tionable if it should be disturbed with the plough or 
disk, especially in moist climates. Renewal, in such 
instances, should rather be attempted through fertiliz- 
ation. It may be advantageous sometimes to stir the 
surface of blue grass pastures with the disk and to 
add some seed of one, two or three varieties of clover. 
The best time probably for doing this work, especially 
on prairie soils, is the early spring, just when the frost 
has come out far enough to admit of cutting down to 
the required depth with the disks. When disked one 
way, it may be profitable, in many instances, to disk 
both wavs, driving at an angle the second time. A few 



402 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

pounds of clover seeds should then be scattered over 
the land, and of one or more grasses, if desired. The 
ground is then smoothed down with the harrow. On 
some soils, it may be helpful to partly smooth the 
ground, before sowing the seed. The grazing may go 
on without interruption. 

Reference has been made to the renewing of Russian 
brome (see p. 188), of Quack grass (see p. 242) and 
of Johnson grass (see p. 257), by using the plough and 
harrow. Bermuda grass may also be renewed (see p. 
128). Some advocate renewal by simply using the or- 
dinary harrow. To use it thus is of questionable ad- 
vantage, the impression made on old sod is so slight. 

In some instances on light soils or on good soils un- 
derlaid with gravel, the grasses fail in certain parts 
from drought or from excessive pasturing. The rem- 
edy is to disk the ground where the pastures have failed, 
and to sow seed again along with rye or other grain. 
Here also, the pasturing may go on as usual, if the seed 
has been plentifully sown, 



CHAPTER XVII. 

MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 

The hay crop in the United States for 1899, as re- 
ported by the United States Census, taken in 1900, was 
as follows : 

Tame and Cultivated grasses 30,605,316 tons 

Wild, Salt, Prairie grasses 13,904,206 " 

Alfalfa 6,222,568 " 

Millet and Hungarian grasses 4,223,500 " 

Clover 4,133,409 " 

Grains cut green for hay 3,262,957 " 

The above enumeration dues not include what is 
designated as forage crops sown for forage and corn 
stalks, and is submitted to indicate the relative eco- 
nomic importance of the different classes of plants, as 
grouped for the production of hay, at the time when 
the census was taken. From this table, the great rela- 
tive importance of the tame and cultivated grasses, as 
factors in producing hay, will be at once apparent ; 
and it may be expected to increase relatively rather than 
decrease, since the source of supply for wild hay will 
gradually decrease until it will ultimately almost dis- 
appear. The grains cut green for hay and the mil- 
lets which are annuals, also furnish a relatively large 
amount of the hay used, the sum total being 7,396,366 
tons. Tn 1899, each of the following states produced 
more hay from grains cut green than they produced of 



404 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

cultivated hay, viz., Arizona, Arkansas, California, In- 
dian Territory, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, 
Oklahoma and South Dakota, hence the relative impor- 
tance of knowing how to grow these in the best form and 
in the best combinations. 

Since in Chapter XV. the grasses and other plants 
grown for pasture and temporary meadow are dis- 
cussed together, in the present chapter only the grass- 
es will be discussed in their relation to providing hay 
from permanent meadows and other plants from which 
hay is made in relation to hay producing only. Not- 
withstanding the importance of the latter as a source 
of supply to the farmers of the South and West, they 
will be discussed briefly, as the author purposes to treat 
of these more fully in a subsequent work dealing with 
cereals. 

In the following discussion, it may happen in some 
instances, larger quantities of seed may be named, as 
suitable for sowing in permanent meadows, than have 
previously been named for temporary meadows; since 
it is more important in the latter to secure a good 
stand of the seeds. It is also important, when laying 
down such meadows that, when grasses are sown in 
combinations, a careful regard must be had to sowing 
those together which mature about the same time. 

HAY CROPS FOR STATES AND PROVINCES. 

In order the more intelligently to discuss this ques- 
tion, the states and the provinces will be divided into 
groups. The divisions will be the same as those adopt- 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 405 

ed in Chapters XV. and XVI. , when discussing Pas- 
tures, Temporary and Permanent. 

For the Northeastern States. — For the states includ- 
ed in this group, see p. 342, and for grasses for tem- 
porary meadows, see p. 343. The best plant for up- 
land soils and also for river bottoms, where it will grow 
in this group of states and provinces, is alfalfa. On 
the upland, it will succeed best on good soils, well en- 
riched and underlaid with clay, not too dense to be 
penetrated by the roots. The seed should be sown in 
the spring about the end of the grain growing season, 
by hand or w r ith such machines as will do the work prop- 
erly. It is preferably sown alone but may be sown 
with various nurse crops and at the rate of 15 to 20 
pounds of seed per acre. This subject is further dis- 
cussed in "Clovers and How to Grow Them" by the 
author. The best permanent hay grass for soils inclin- 
ing to light, is Russian broine, sown at the rate of 20 
pounds per acre (see p. 181). The best grasses for 
permanent meadows on productive upland soils are tim- 
othy and redtop, sown at the rate of 6 pounds of the 
former and 6 or 7 of the latter. The best average per- 
manent meadow grasses, sown in combination for low 
lands are timothy, redtop and alsike clover, sown at the 
rate of 4, 4 and 3 pounds, respectively, per acre. On 
some low lands, fowl meadow makes excellent perma- 
nent meadow, and possibly also meadow foxtail. 

Annuals grown for hay in this group are crimson 
clover, the various kinds of millet, oats, peas and vetch- 
es; tu'imson clover and the millets are usually sown 
alone ; oats are also frequently sown thus, but often also 



406 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

in conjunction with the Canada field pea or vetches or 
both combined. 

Crimson clover is sown on prepared land in August 
and September, using 15 pounds of seed per acre. It 
is only adapted to the more southerly of the states of 
this group. It is usually ready for harvesting in May. 
For further facts, the reader is referred to the book, 
"Clovers and How to Grow Them," by the author. 

Of the four classes of millets, viz., Foxtail, Barnyard, 
Broomcorn and Pearl, the first named is the best for hay 
production in this group ; the varieties known respec- 
tively as Hungarian and German are especially suitable. 
These are sown preferably on clean land in the late 
spring, subsequent to the corn planting season and on 
through June. They require from 60 to 75 days to 
reach the proper stage for cutting. From 2 to 4: pecks 
of seed per acre are sown, according to the firmness of 
the hay wanted. It is sown by hand or with the grain 
drill, and when sown by hand it is covered with the aid 
of the harrow and roller. When sown with the drill, 
the seed should be buried from 1 to 2 inches only, the 
soil being right as to moisture. The sowing of millets 
is further discussed in "Soiling Crops and the Silo," by 
the author. 

The oats are sown alone to a very considerable ex- 
tent, to provide hay, more especially for dairy cows. 
They are sown in the ordinary way, in the spring as 
soon as the land is ready, whether sown alone or with 
peas or vetches or both. From 24 to 3 bushels of seed 
should be sown per acre, using at least 25 per cent 
more seed than to grow a crop of grain, in order 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 407 

to insure greater fineness in the hay. When sown 
with peas or vetches, ahout 1J bushels of each per acre 
will suffice, when sown with both peas and vetches, 5 
pecks of oats, 3 of peas and 3 of vetches will probably 
suffice. The aim should be to sow as much of peas or 
vetches in the mixture as are likely to be sustained by 
the oats, as these furnish not only the more valuable 
hay plants, but also the more palatable. This can only 
be determined by experience in growing them. 

For the Southeastern States. — For the states included 
in this group, see p. 344, and for grasses for temporary 
meadows, see p. 344. The best permanent meadow 
plant, on average soils, in this group is Bermuda grass 
and on low lands, Johnson grass. The former of these 
is discussed in Chapter V and the latter in Chapter 
XII, p. 248. The most valuable grasses for permanent 
meadows, sown in combination, on the better class of 
upland soils, are orchard, redtop, tall oat and meadow 
fescue. Of these, orchard and tall oat go best together, 
since they mature about the same time; likewise red- 
top and meadow fescue; of the two first, 28 and 12 
pounds respectively should be sown per acre, and of the 
two last, 10 and 18 pounds respectively. The perma- 
nency of these has its limits as in time they will fail. 
In certain areas, more especially on bottom lands suffi- 
ciently drained, and also on certain upland soils on an 
open clay foundation, alfalfa makes good permanent 
meadow. As stated above, from 15 to 20 pounds of seed 
are sown per acre, but in these states the crop is prefer- 
ably sown in the fall. This, at least, will hold good 
in many localities. 



408 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Among the best annuals grown for hay are crimson 
clover, usually grown alone, winter oats, winter barley 
or winter rye, grown alone or in combination with the 
sand vetch, cow pea and soy bean ; on the best class of 
soils, millets of the Foxtail and Barnyard varieties. 
These grain crops are more important relatively in fur- 
nishing hay to southern farmers, than grain crops are 
to farmers in the North, owing to the greater abundance 
of other hay crops in the North. Crimson clover is 
grown as described above (see p. 406), but may be sown 
later and cut earlier; of the small winter cereals men- 
tioned, oats is by far the most valuable for hay. Eye 
is more hardy and yields well but is lacking in palatabil- 
ity. It may be wise, however, in some instances, to 
sow it with the sand vetch in order to sustain the lat- 
ter. These small cereal grains should be sown in the 
autumn, as soon as the fall rains come, using not less 
than 2 bushels of seed to the acre, when sown alone, and 
in many instances they will also furnish grazing for tha 
winter and later will grow up into hay; when winter 
oats are sown with the sand vetch, use 1 bushel of the 
seed of each per acre and^ in some cases, less of the seed 
of the vetches ; when winter rye is used instead of oats, 
sow | bushel of rye and H bushels of the vetch ; enough 
rye only is wanted to sustain the vetch. Cow peas are 
sown subsequently to the corn planting season and are 
usually sown with the grain drill. When sown for hay 
all the tubes or every other tube is open, or only as 
many open as will suffice to make room for properly 
cultivating the crop. The amount of seed varies from 
2 bushels per acre to 2 pecks, according to the soil, the 



2. a 



a p c 



? -s 




MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 409 

variety and the object sought. The variety sown would 
also be adapted to the needs of the locality. When the 
crop is not cultivated, the harrow should be used on 
it with more or less freedom, in the early stages of 
growth. What has been said about the sowing of cow 
peas will equally apply to soy beans, grown for hay. 
Millets can only be sown upon the better class of soils. 
Their relative importance in furnishing hay in this 
group is not so high as in some other groups, owing in 
a large measure to soil conditions. Sorghum is best 
sown just at the close of the corn planting season on 
well prepared and fertilized land. From 1 to 2 bushels 
of seed are drilled in with the grain drill in order to 
make the growth fine. The crop may be cut twice for 
hay. The chief objection to it is that it is difficult to 
cure for hay, nor is it relished so much by stock, as when 
grown as fodder and fed when more mature. In sev- 
eral of the southern states, however, it is much grown 
for hay ; considerable crab grass is also grown for hay 
(seep. 262). 

For the Canadian Northwest. — For the states and 
provinces included in this group, see p. 346, and for 
grasses for temporary meadows, see p. 346. The best 
grass for permanent meadows in this area generally is 
Russian brome. Next to it, especially in dry areas, is 
western rye, and, in areas more moist, timothy. These 
are best sown for permanent meadow in the late sum- 
mer and on summer-fallowed land but may also be sown 
in the spring or in the quite late autumn on clean land. 
When sown early in the spring, it may be with a nurse 
crop, thinly sown and cut for hay at the heading out 
Grasses — 27. 



410 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

stage. When Russian brome and timothy are sown, use 
10 and 6 pounds of seed respectively; when Russian 
brome and rye grass are sown, use 9 and 10 pounds 
respectively. For methods of sowing, see p. 179. 

The best grain crops for hay alone or oats and Cana- 
da field peas, and probably oats and vetches, especial- 
ly northward as indicated by the abundance of wild 
peas growing in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. 
Oats and peas may be sown with the drill in the mixed 
form, using about ^ bushel of oats to about 2 bushels 
of peas and about \ bushel of oats to 1^ bushels of 
vetches per acre. The proportion may need to be va- 
ried somewhat in different areas to meet requirements. 
They should be sown on fall ploughed land and early 
in the spring; millet also does well in much of this 
area. 

For the Upper Mississippi Basin. — For the area in- 
cluded in this group, see p. 347, and for temporary 
hay meadows, grown in them, see p. 347. The best 
single plants for permanent hay meadows in Wiscon- 
sin, Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota are Russian brome, 
on dry soils, and timothy and redtop, for moist lands. 
In laying these down, sow of Russian brome 15 pounds 
per acre ; of timothy, 12 pounds and of redtop 12 
pounds ; alfalfa will also grow in many parts of these 
states, and when it does will make excellent permanent 
meadow. But by far the best combination for perma- 
nent meadows is timothy, redtop and alsike clover, sown 
on moist soils, at the rate of 4, 4 and 3 pounds re- 
spectively per acre. In Missouri, the best permanent 
meadow grasses are much the same as in these states, 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 411 

except that Russian brome lias a much less important 
place. In western Minnesota and eastern North and 
South Dakota, Russian brome is the best permanent 
meadow grass and timothy is probably next to it; 
alfalfa is also likely to have its place in these. In 
eastern Kansas and Nebraska alfalfa is far the best 
permanent meadow plant ; and next to it are meadow 
fescue, Russian brome, tall oat grass and orchard grass. 
The latter two may be sown together for permanent 
meadow, since they mature about the same time, using 
12 pounds of seed of the former and 28 pounds of the 
latter per acre, but the meadow from these will not 
be very enduring. Meadow fescue, sown at the rate 
of 18 pounds per acre, or Russian brome sown at the rate 
of 15 pounds per acre, will be more abiding, but the 
former will not produce very large yields of hay. 

The annual hay plants for this group of states north- 
ward, include oats, peas and millets, more particularly 
of the small varieties. The prairie soils of nearly all 
the area in this group has high adaptation for millet. 
Southward in the same, cow peas and soy beans are 
coming to be grown. For growing oats and peas, see p. 
407; millet, p. 336; soy beans and cow peas, p. 407. 

For the Semi- Arid Belt. — For the area included in 
this belt, see p. 348, and for the temporary meadows in 
the same, see p. 348. The best permanent hay plant 
for the dry land on which crops can be grown is Rus- 
sian brome with western rye grass a close second, sowing 
15 pounds of the seed of each, when sown alone, and 
about half the amount of each when sown together. On 
some of the bench lands northward, timothy is the best 



412 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

hay plant at the present time; on others of these, al- 
falfa ; of the former, sow 10 ponnds of seed and of the 
latter 15 pounds. On the imirrigated wheat growing 
lands of Washington, Idaho and Oregon, a combination 
of Russian brome, orchard and tall oat grasses, using 
5, 9 and 4 pounds of seed respectively, will probably 
make the best combination for permanent meadow ; al- 
falfa will also grow well on much of this land. 

In these areas and in others similar in some other 
states, especially California, a very large amount of 
hay is furnished by the small cereal grains. For this 
purpose, much wheat is grown, but oats and barley are 
also extensively used and in some localities, winter rye 
and speltz. These may of course be grown alone or in 
combination. When grown for hay, about 25 per cent 
should be added to the amount of seed usually sown 
for grain. The sand vetch, though not much grown as 
yet in this area, will grow well in much of it and would 
make a splendid addition to the hay crop, sown at the 
rate of 1 bushel per acre, along with about the same 
portion of grain. The dry climate and freedom from 
rust in the grain makes the hay from the same more 
palatable than it is in parts of the United States and 
Canada where there is more moisture. 

For Irrigated Western Valleys. — For the states in- 
cluded in this group, see p. 349, and for the plants 
grown for temporary meadows, p. 350. In these val- 
leys, many kinds of grasses may be grown for perma- 
nent meadow. Of these, alfalfa is unquestionably the 
most important. For all or nearly all these lands, from 
near Alaska to Lower California, it has wonderful adap- 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 413 

tation that is, in a sense, remarkable; from two to 
five crops a year, according to latitude and altitude, are 
regularly grown. Although the crop is commonly sown 
alone, there may be combined with it various other 
grasses. Those which grow quickly and which, like the 
alfalfa, will furnish more than one cutting, should be 
chosen. Italian rye grass would be one of the best 
but that it is short lived ; perennial rye lives longer 
but does not grow so fast ; orchard and tall oat grasses 
may also be thus grown. Twenty pounds of alfalfa 
seed is ample when sown alone, but when one of the 
other grasses is added a few pounds of the seed of each 
will suffice, more or less being used, according to the 
object sought; the amount of alfalfa seed should be cor- 
respondingly reduced. 

After alfalfa, the best permanent meadow, for these 
valleys for the present time, is timothy ; if hay is wanted 
for the market, more especially when it has to be trans- 
ported in the baled form, sow about 12 pounds of seed 
to the acre. When the hay is wanted for home or local 
feeding, sow 10 pounds of timothy and 3 pounds of alsike 
clover, or 6 pounds of red clover in lieu of the alsike, 
or 3 pounds of the former and 2 pounds of the latter. 
Such mixtures prove very satisfactory and last for many 
years, especially the mixture of timothy and alsike 
clover. The yield may be further increased on many 
soils by sowing timothy, redtop and alsike in combina- 
tion, using 6, 4- and 3 pounds of the seed respectively 
per acre. Various other grasses may be grown, but 
none probably will prove so satisfactory as those that 
have been named. 



414 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Various grain crops also may be grown for hay alone 
or in combination. The necessity for growing these 
thus does not exist where grasses can be grown so abun- 
dantly and of such high excellence. 

West of the Cascades. — For the area included in this 
division, see p. 351, and for the grasses for temporary 
meadow, see p. 352. The list for permanent meadow is 
a long one. It includes timothy, red top, orchard grass, 
meadow fescue, perennial rye grass, Russian brome, al- 
sike and red clover, grown singly or in various combina- 
tions. The clovers here assume more or less of a peren- 
nial habit of growth. The amounts of seed to sow, when 
these are sown alone, would be about the same as men- 
tioned for such sowing, when discussing each variety, 
but minimum rather than maximum quantities, would 
suffice, owing to the moist character of the climate, so 
favorable to the growth of grasses. One of the simplest 
and best combinations is timothy and alsike clover, espe- 
cially when the hay is to be marketed ; to produce such 
hay from 10 to 12 pounds of timothy may be sown on 
bottom and tide lands, and 2 pounds of alsike clover; 
where the yield is for home consumption, redtop should 
be added; the proportions of seed then required would 
be about 4 pounds each of timothy and redtop, and 8 
pounds of alsike. 

For the higher land, timothy and medium red clover 
would make meadow that would last for several years, if 
desired, sowing 8 pounds of the former and 6 pounds of 
the latter. The production would probably be strength- 
ened by substituting 3 pounds each of medium red and 
mammoth clover for 6 pounds of medium red. On the 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 415 

light and poorer soils, Russian brome, tall oat and per- 
ennial rye grasses could be sown at the rate of 7, 5 and 7 
pounds of the seed of each respectively. Various kinds 
of grain mixtures may be grown for hay. Of these 
oats, vetches and peas are the best ; the oats may, of 
course, be grown alone, sowing not less than 2 J bushels 
of seed to the acre. More valuable hay, however, is 
produced when peas or vetches or both are grown along 
with the oats. In the mixture, 1^ bushels of peas or 
the same of vetches would be the proper amounts to sow, 
at least approximately. When both are sown, one-half 
of the amount of each would suffice ; the variety of vetch 
sown is the common kind (Vicia sativa). 

The common vetch is sometimes sown alone for hay, 
but the better plan is to sow enough grain with it to 
sustain the plants. In this part of the United States, 
it is considered a very excellent hay plant. When cut 
at a stage a little short of ripening, it makes particularly 
excellent food for sheep. It has high adaptation for 
all cultivable portions of this region. 

MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS. 

The discussions that now follow relate to preparing 
the soil for meadows ; sowing the seed ; harvesting, cur- 
ing and storing the hay; grazing the meadows and fer- 
tilizing and renewing them. 

Preparing the Soil. — While as previously intimated, 
careful preparation of the soil is advantageous in grow- 
ing all kinds of grasses, it may be added, that it is espe- 
cially so, when preparing the same for permanent mead- 
ows, because they are permanent. It would not be pos- 



416 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

sible, within the limits of this work, to discuss in detail 
the preparation that would best suit all soils and cli- 
mates in the various states. A clean seed bed, suitable 
to the needs of the climate, and well supplied with easily 
accessible fertility is all important. 

Very large yields of grass, composed mainly of tim- 
othy, redtop and red clover have been obtained by Mr. 
Geo. M. Clark of Higganum, Conn. He gives very 
fine and thorough pulverization to the land in summer 
previous to sowing the seed with a view to securing a 
clean and moist seed bed; sows large amounts of seed 
and applies suitable fertilizers liberally at the time of 
sowing the seed and subsequently. By his method two 
cuttings per annum have been harvested with a total 
yield of over 5 to more than 8 tons of hay. In prepar- 
ing the land, the cutaway and spike harrows are chiefly 
used with a view to chopping and finely pulverizing the 
land. 

While this method has proved eminently satisfactory 
for that part of Connecticut, to uphold the plan, as 
some writers do, as being that which should be generally 
followed in laying down permanent meadows would cer- 
tainly be misleading. To engraft it on the practice of 
the farmers in certain parts of Kentucky, for instance, 
where excellent crops of these grasses can be secured 
for several years, would be encouraging prodigality in 
labor and waste in applied fertility; results can be ob- 
tained in certain parts of Kentucky, by sowing the 
grasses on clover sod, ploughed and prepared, with only 
a fractional part of the labor involved in the other case. 
To spend a similar amount of labor on land to be laid 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 417 

down on the western prairies, which lifts with the wind 
would simply be encouraging the wind to blow it away ; 
and to expend so much labor on a seed bed in the rainy 
South without subsoiling would not be wise. While the 
aim should be, in preparing such lands, to have them 
clean, finely pulverized, moist and rich, these results 
should be sought by that system which will involve a 
minimum expenditure of labor ; pulverization to the ex- 
tent of hazarding or inviting subsequent impaction 
should be avoided; waste in the methods of applying 
fertility should be avoided. Those methods of prepara- 
tion will be best which will best meet the needs of the 
locality whatever these may be. 

Sowing. — What has been said in Chapter XVI, as to 
the time for sowing permanent pastures, will apply 
about equally to permanent meadows. (See p. 385.) 
Over much of the country, especially south and west, 
early autumn sowing will prove most satisfactory. 

In laying down permanent pastures, the question of 
securing the proceeds of a nurse crop at the same time 
is one of but small importance relatively. The all im- 
portant matter is to secure a good stand of the grasses 
because of the permanency of the meadow. As in lay- 
ing down permanent pastures, nurse crops, when used, 
should in many instances be cut early to mulch the land, 
or later and while immature, for hay. 

While the quantities of seed named in each case is 
in the main correct, it is only intended to be approxi- 
mately so, which may be said of the quantities of seed 
specified throughout the book. Some successful grow- 
ers sow much larger quantities of seed than those named ; 



418 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

especially, when laying down permanent meadows, and 
under their conditions, it is the proper thing to do. 
They are favored with a moist climate and are careful 
to maintain an equilibrium in fertility, and, consequent- 
ly, the soil sustains both denseness in growth and vigor 
in the same; hence, the yields are relatively high and 
the quality of the hay is fine ; the yields would be quite 
as large probably, though considerably less seed were 
sown, but the quality of the hay would not be so fine. 
But to sow quantities so large without maintaining a 
high state of fertility, would mean reduced yields, as 
the food supply in the soil would be inadequate to meet 
the needs of so many plants. To sow very large quan- 
tities of seed on lands, where the normal supply of 
moisture is low, would mean more or less of failure, 
since so many plants would be unable to get enough 
moisture to produce strong growth. To overstock 
meadow lands thus is akin in principle to overstocking 
pastures with animals brought to graze upon them. 

Harvesting. — The grasses proper are, in nearly all in- 
stances, cut with the field mower, when harvested for 
hay. The same is true of clovers, sorghums, millets 
and all varieties of cow peas and soy beans. It is neces- 
sary to cut them thus to facilitate curing. When seed 
is wanted, except in the cases of sorghums, cow peas 
and soy beans, the binder is used. The sorghums, when 
sown broadcast, are sometimes cut with the mower for 
autumn feeding, and sometimes with the binder; when 
grown in drills to which cultivation has been given, they 
are now more commonly harvested with the corn har- 
vester. The best machine probably for harvesting cow 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 419 

peas for any use, is the pea harvester; seed crops of. 
soj beans may be cut with the binder. 

Nearly all the small cereal grains are harvested with 
the binder, when cut for hay, whether grown alone or in 
mixtures; when thus cut, they are more easily handled 
and with less labor, while being cured, stored and fed. 
But when harvesting them, the sheaves should be made 
small and tied rather loosely to facilitate drying. If 
bound tightly, more or less mould is likely to appear in 
the sheaves underneath the band that ties them. How- 
ever, when those cereals grow in mixtures and are much 
lodged and tangled, it will usually be preferable to cut 
them with the field mower. When vetches are grown 
alone for hay, they can be best harvested with the pea 
harvester but may be cut with the mower. 

The proper stage at which to cut nearly all grass- 
plants is when in bloom, a little prior to that stage 
for cattle, especially milch cows and sheep, and for 
horses, a little later than the full bloom stage. Grasses 
which quickly lose in palatability when nearing matur- 
ity should be cut when rather less advanced than others, 
such are orchard grass and western rye; others again 
do lose much when cut later than the blossoming stage, 
such is Russian brome. The clovers should be cut when 
in full bloom, except alfalfa, which is best cut when 
coming into bloom. The best time to cut the sor- 
ghums, grown thickly for hay, is when seed is in the 
dough stage; when two cuttings are wanted in the sea- 
son, it must be cut earlier ; the difficulty in curing it 
increases with earliness in the stage of cutting. The 
millets are ready for cutting, when all the heads have 



420 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

appeared and when those first out are beginning to as- 
sume a yellowish tint. 

Cow peas are cut for hay, when pods that first ap- 
peared, are maturing. Soy beans are ready, when the 
pods are reasonably well filled but not ripe, though for 
some uses they are cut earlier. 

Oats are ready for being cut for hay, when the straw 
for a few inches below the head and for the same above 
the ground, has assumed a yellow tint, the other portion 
of the stalk being yet green ; or, when the grain is fully 
formed and in the milk stage, but not yet advanced 
in the dough stage. Wheat should be cut at a stage 
of development a little earlier, lest the straw becomes 
too woody. Barley is cut a little short of the milk stage 
or the beards will stiffen too much. Rye, to prevent 
undue woodiness and want of palatability, is better cut 
when coming into head. Vetches are ready to make 
into hay when nearly all the flowers have been succeeded 
by pods, but while the crop is not yet ripe. 

Where large areas are to be harvested, it may not be 
possible to cut the entire crop at the most suitable stage 
for harvesting. Something will probably be sacrificed 
from cutting a part of the crop too early or too late; 
of the two evils, the former is usually the lesser, hence 
the wisdom in such instances of beginning to harvest 
early. Such action is further supported by the general 
principle, that it is advantageous to be forehanded with 
work. 

Curing Hay. — When curing ha}^ of any kind, the 
aim should be to expose it no more than is absolutely 
necessary to the sun, as palatability decreases with in- 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 421 

crease in bleaching; to protect it, as much as possible, 
from rain and dews, which take from it aroma and cer- 
tain other properties, in proportion, as these are pres- 
ent ; and to cure it to the greatest extent practicable 
through the agency of air and wind, as such curing 
favors the retention of the natural color. Hay that is 
over sun-cured, not only loses in palatability and in 
many instances many of the leaves, but it loses unduly in 
weight. Hay, exposed to excessive rains, especially 
when from leguminous plants, soon becomes practically 
valueless for food. On the other hand, hay properly 
cured chiefly through the agency of air and wind pre- 
serves the green color, the aroma, the palatability, the 
weight and the nutrition to the greatest extent to which 
it is possible to secure these. 

From what has been said, it will be apparent that to 
secure these results in the most perfect form, hay must 
be cured to the greatest extent possible, in cocks rather 
than while spread over the ground exposed to sunshine ; 
or in winrows where much more of the surface is ex- 
posed than in cocks. There is also the additional haz- 
ard, that if rain falls while the hay is in winrows, the 
loss from such exposure is usually much greater than 
when it is in cocks ; the relative loss from clovers and 
other legumes being thus exposed is greater than the 
loss from the grasses proper. The more nearly cured 
the hay is, when exposed to rain or dew, the greater the 
relative injury that comes to it from such exposure. 
When mixed grains are rained on, while they lie upon 
the ground, where the mower left them, the further in- 
jury follows that they are more or less covered with 



422 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

particles of soil. The same is true of such crops as 
cow peas or soy beans. The wisdom, therefore, of get- 
ting mown hay into well put up cocks, as soon as possi- 
ble after it has been mown, is clearly apparent. 

Notwithstanding that the very best hay is thus made, 
much good hay is made by curing it in the winrow or 
in bunches, made from the winrow by the aid of the 
horserake. In fact more hay is cured by this process, 
than by the other and in many instances the practice 
is not only justifiable but commendable; it is not only 
labor saving but enables the haymaker to do the work 
so much more quickly that the hazards from losses of 
exposure to rain and from the overmaturing of a portion 
of the crop are lessened ; the cost of harvesting is very 
materially reduced. The time and labor called for in 
putting hay into cocks are no more than would be re- 
quired to put it on wagons ready for removal; when 
placed in cocks, the hay cannot be put upon wagons by 
the hay loader, as it can when made in winrows. The 
loss of quality in the hay, therefore, by this mode of 
curing may be more than made up in the benefits accru- 
ing as stated above. 

It is relatively more important that clovers and other 
leguminous hay plants be cured in cocks than that the 
grasses proper be cured thus; since when cured other- 
wise, they lose more leaves, part with more of their 
aroma, take much more injury from rain and dew; 
when thus cured, the danger from over fermentation in 
the mow is also lessened. The practice, therefore, which 
aims to cure these in the cock is to be commended, un- 
less in time of settled harvest weather or in rainless 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 423 

harvest climates. When harvesting clovers and other 
legumes, the method of procedure would, in outline, be 
as follows: Cut with the mower as soon as the dew 
has lifted. When the crop has wilted somewhat, run 
the tedder over the mown hay and probably a second 
time, with an interval of a few hours between. The 
mower leaves the crop lying closely on the ground as 
the horses and mower pass over all the cut portion. 
The tedder tosses it into the air and in such a way that 
when it falls down "topsy turvy," it lies more loosely 
over the ground, so that the air, stirring and passing 
through it, greatly facilitates quick curing. It is then 
raked with the horserake, as soon as the rake will draw 
it easily and cleanly into winrows ; when the rake will 
not do this satisfactorily, it is too green to be raked. 
It should be put into cocks as soon as raked ; these 
should be small or large according to the degree of cur- 
ing in the hay. The higher and narrower they are, 
compatible with firmness, the more symmetrical they 
are; and the more carefully they are combed down 
around the sides, the more quickly they will cure and 
the better they will turn rain. One well used to such 
work will put the hay into such cocks quickly; while 
the unskilled and careless may spend their time to little 
purpose by doing the work slowly and in a slovenly man- 
ner. 

The length of time between the cutting of legumes 
and getting them put into cocks varies with the weather 
and the maturity in the hay. Frequently these may be 
made the same day the crop is cut ; at other times, not 
until the second day ; and in very bad weather, not until 



424 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

the third day. The length of time that the hay should 
remain in the cocks will depend chiefly on the weather, 
but usually it remains thus for two or three days. 
While in the cocks, it "sweats" more or less which means 
that it ferments slightly and, as a result, is less liable 
to ferment excessively in the mow. ~No time should 
be lost in storing hay as soon as it is ready. 

This may be determined by taking a wisp of hay 
from within the heap and twisting it in the hands. 
If no moisture exudes, the hay is ready to store. An- 
other method of judging is by the comparative weight 
of the hay in being handled, which can be easily judged 
by a skilled hand. Before drawing the hay for storage, 
it is usual to spread out the cocks, more or less, for ex- 
posure to the sunlight for a few hours, before drawing 
them and more especially the parts of the same near- 
est to the ground. This should not be done much in 
advance of the storing, in showery weather. 

Cow peas and soy beans are frequently left longer on 
the ground, before putting them up in cocks, especially 
the former, since they cure but slowly. The cocks are 
made small and narrow in proportion to the height to 
facilitate drying out. They too are frequently turned 
over, more or less, before they are drawn, to secure in 
them quicker and more thorough drying. In some in- 
stances, they are stacked soon after being cut. The 
procedure is, in substance, as follows : Poles are plant- 
ed in the ground to the height of about feet and one 
foot into the ground. One pair of strips of wood is 
fastened to the stack pole at right angles to each other 
and one foot from the ground. These are laden with 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 425 

pea hay. A second pair is in due time placed 3 feet 
from the ground and similarly laden. A third pair is 
placed 6 feet from the ground, and likewise laden to the 
top of the pole. These little stacks, not more than 6 
feet across, are covered with crab grass. This is only 
one of many devices, used in the curing of cow peas. 

Caps may advantageously be used in curing clover 
hay, in showery weather, when the quantities to be cured 
are not large. They may be made of strong cotton cloth, 
also of other material, about 4-J feet square, with pegs 
attached to the corners or some kind of weight, as a 
small stone sewed in each corner. When in use, they 
are spread over the cocks, and the pegs are fastened 
into the hay at the sides of the cocks or into the ground. 
One work-hand should apply them as fast as two put 
up the hay. When not in use, they should be carefully 
laid away and, if made of good material, should last for 
as many as a score of years. In time of heavy rainfall, 
however, they fail to preserve the bottom of the cock, 
from serious injury, from the absorption of moisture 
from beneath. 

The plan of storing clover and cow pea hay, as soon 
as a little wilted, has been tried and, in many instances, 
with success. The crop is cut and wilted a little and is 
then drawn and tramped down firmly into mows. Care 
is taken not to store any of it when wet with dew or rain. 
The principle involved is much the same as in making 
ensilage. The requisite conditions, however, must all 
be carefully observed or serious loss may follow ; hence, 
the unskilled, in this method of curing hay, should thor- 
oughly post themselves regarding all the details requi- 
Grasses — 28. 



426 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

site to success before they attempt to cure it thus. In 
dry weather, the advantage from curing by this method 
is to be questioned. 

The grasses cure much more quickly than the clovers. 
The practice is common, therefore, of drawing them 
together with the hay rake, after the tedder has gone 
over them, and drawing the hay from the winrows. It 
is lifted or may be lifted from these with the hay loader. 
To facilitate such lifting, the winrows should be small. 
The duration of the exposure will depend upon the 
kind of grass, its maturity and the weather. In good 
weather, it can usually be cut one day and stored the 
next. In showery weather, what is cut should be put 
up in cocks, as these will shed rain better than those 
composed of clover. Millet and mixed grains are some- 
times cured in winrows and sometimes in cocks ; which 
method should be followed will depend upon conditions. 
These crops take more injury from rain than many of 
the grasses but less injury than clovers ; hence, in show- 
ery weather, they should be cured in the cock. 

Storing Hay. — Hay is stored in the mows of barns 
or in the lofts of stables, in hay sheds or in stacks. The 
aim should be, on the part of those who feed the hay on 
the farm, to store it under cover to the greatest extent 
practicable, in order to avoid the expense of handling 
a second time before it is fed and the loss from the shed- 
ing of leaves and heads, which, in nearly all instances, 
accompanies the second handling of hay. In handling 
cow pea, soy bean and clover hay, this loss is very much 
greater than in handling hay from grasses. Further- 
more, the aim should be to store it in such proximity 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 427 

to the place of feeding, that it will be conveyed to the 
animals which feed npon it with the least possible 
amount of labor. 

When stored in large quantities in barns, stables or 
indeed anywhere, it is lifted from the load and dumped 
in the mow, hay shed or stack, as the case may be, by 
means of horse-forks or, what is usually better, slings 
where they can be used. With the latter, the entire 
load may be taken up and put in place by means of two 
or three separate draughts. When taken up with the 
horse-fork, more or less hay falls back again with each 
draught and has to be relifted. When lifted by either 
method, careful attention should be given to the even 
and systematic distribution of the hay in the mow, that 
it may pack evenly and be taken out again in the regular 
way. To accomplish this calls for great diligence and 
fidelity on the part of those who work in the warm mows, 
when hay is being stored rapidly. 

Hay sheds are usually oblong in shape and may be 
of any size desired. They are usually made by setting 
upright posts in the ground and putting plates on them 
and on these rafters sustaining a ridge roof. Suspended 
from the ridge a track may be constructed, if desired, 
to carry a fork or sling in storing the hay. These are 
usually open on every side. Where hay has to be han- 
dled a second time, these sheds may be made to render 
excellent service, since they may be erected in the midst 
of a permanent meadow and thus furnish safe protec- 
tion for the hay which is stored with the least possible 
loss of time in conveying it to the place of storage. 

When stacking hay, poles should first be laid under- 



428 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

neath and only sufficiently near to sustain other poles 
laid across them; upon this, a covering of old straw 
should he laid. When the stack rests on the ground, 
the hay at the bottom of the stack will be injured from 
one to two feet from the ground, according to the loca- 
tion and climate, by imbibing moisture from the earth. 
When building stacks, whether of the long or round 
form, it is greatly important that the centre shall be 
kept considerably higher from the ground upward than 
the sides, otherwise water will seep in from the sides 
and penetrate downward. It is also greatly important 
that the stack shall be kept evenly tramped, that the 
settling may be evenc Where the settling of the stack 
is even everywhere and a little sloping downward all 
the way from the centre to the outer edges, it would not 
be easy for any considerable quantity of water to pene- 
trate a stack even though topped out only reasonably 
well. 

Marsh grass where it can be obtained furnishes the 
best grass covering for stacks. It is most suitably put 
on in the green form and combed down all around with 
a rake to straighten the stems downward. Blue grass, 
such as obtained in fence corners, is also good, since 
it is not easily penetrated by rain. Small weights 
should be suspended to wires or ropes, running over 
the ridge or crown of the stack to hold the covering in 
place. Sometimes stacks are covered with cloth such as 
is used in making tents or of any material that will 
turn rain and that is not too costly. 

When clover, cow peas or vetches arc stacked in a 
climate of much rainfall, unless the tops of the stacks 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 429 

are carefully protected, there will be much loss. The 
aim should be, therefore, to put these crops under cover, 
when possible, and to protect the stacks carefully where 
this cannot be done. 

What has been said about storing the grasses proper 
will apply about equally to mixed grains, cut with the 
mowers, and to millets except that these are more easily 
injured by rain. But rain does not harm them as much 
as clovers. Sorghum hay is more difficult to keep and 
where it is grown, which is usually in rather dry cli- 
mates, is frequently stored in quite small stacks from 
which it is fed. 

In large ranches, especially in the West, native hay 
from the sloughs and alfalfa from irrigated lands art 
frequently drawn from the winrows on wide sweeps^ 
with one horse attached to each end. These load by 
simply driving the horses for a short distance, one on 
each side of the winrow. The load thus gathered is 
drawn over the ground and deposited on the stacker, 
which carries it up to the stack. Hay is rapidly stored 
in this way, but such methods would be ill adapted to 
stacking in wet climates, as they would result in the 
spoiling of much of the hay. 

It is the practice with some to sow about a peck of 
coarse common salt over each load of hay. They con- 
tend that it tends to preserve hay, stored a little green, 
and it does in some degree. They also claim that it 
adds to the palatability of the hay and in some small 
degree it does. Nevertheless, when the hay is properly 
cured and stored, it is doubtful if the advantage will 
cover the outlay for the application of salt. 



430 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Grazing Permanent Meadows. — As the primary ob- 
ject in growing and maintaining permanent meadows 
is to secure hay, rather than pasture, whatever will main- 
tain them in a condition to produce hay is of paramount 
importance. Pasture should be sought from them only, 
therefore, to remove a superabundance of covering, such 
as would hinder their productiveness and, in some in- 
stances, their existence unless they are grazed. This 
will mean, therefore, (1) that the grazing of hay plants 
should not be done at any season of the year, if such 
grazing would endanger the life, vitality or productive- 
ness of the plants; (2) that, if admissible, at certain 
times, it should never be done at such times as it may 
work harm; (3) that it should not be done when mowing 
will answer the purpose as well or better. 

Some meadow plants should seldom or never be grazed 
while being grown for meadow. Timothy is one of 
these, alfalfa is another, and Johnson grass, a third. 
This does not mean that these plants should not be pas- 
tured at all, but the aim should be to avoid pasturing 
them to the greatest extent practicable. Timothy will 
sometimes endure winter pasturing very well and remain 
productive, as in bottom lands or on tide lands in the 
Puget Sound region. In the other instances, it will 
produce fair crops from year to year, if never grazed, 
while if grazed closely in the autumn, the yields will 
be reduced fully 50 per cent ; the same is true of alfalfa ; 
it is also true of Johnson grass, that it may seldom be 
pastured closely with injury. It is almost certain that 
where alfalfa and timothy will endure pasturing in the 
autumn and winter, the returns would be greater if 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 431 

these crops were not so pastured. While it may be ad- 
missible to pasture meadows in the autumn, where cli- 
mates are mild, where the aftermath is so strong that it 
threatens to, at least, partially smother the plants and 
the weather is so moist that it could not be cured, it is 
never admissible to graze aftermath so closely that it will 
not protect sufficiently the roots of the plants in winter. 
It may be admissible to graze the same kinds of meadow 
much more closely in the autumn and winter in mild cli- 
mates, than in those that are cold. In fact, it may be 
death to some meadow plants to graze them in winter 
at all in cold climates ; such is alfalfa. Again where 
snowfall is abundant, and almost certain, grazing rank 
meadow plants in the late autumn may prove helpful, 
whereas similar grazing of the same kind of plants, 
when they are almost certain to be exposed, would be 
about sure death to them. 

Should aftermath or rowen be abundant, the mower 
will remove it more evenly than o-razinff and it may be 
cut high purposely, the better to afford winter protec- 
tion. In such instances, mowing would be preferable 
to grazing. 

Ordinarily the aim should be to have permanent 
meadows go into the winter season, with enough of a 
covering to protect them sufficiently against adverse 
winter weather, such as may be expected in the locality. 
Some plants under certain conditions will not provide 
more aftermath, from year to year, than is necessary 
to form such a covering. When they do not, they should 
never be pastured, while in permanent meadow. But 
the richness of the around, and the character of the 



432 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

manuring, and the influence which these exercise on 
production Avill make pasturing meadows admissible 
under some conditions, where under other conditions, 
it would not be at all admissible. 

Fertilizing and Renewing. — The question of fertiliz- 
ing permanent meadows has, in most instances, a close 
relation to their productiveness. Some of these, as al- 
falfa meadows for instance, will, in certain locations, 
produce well for many years without any applied fer- 
tilizers. The plants are, in a sense, the scavengers of 
the fertility they require from the soil and air. When 
these fail, they usually fail because other grasses or 
weeds come in and crowd the plants. Again, other 
plants that cannot obtain nitrogen from the air will 
grow for many years and produce abundantly without 
applied fertilizers ; such are certain grasses grown on 
tide lands. Yet again, the same plants, grown under 
other conditions, would not produce hay crops vigorously 
for two years in succession without beinff dressed with 
fertilizer. 

If farmyard manure is applied, it should be in a well 
reduced form and is preferably applied in the autumn 
and should be evenly spread. Fresh manure would be 
objectionable because of the weed seeds in it and be- 
cause of the extent to which the unreduced portions 
would rake up in the hay. 

Commercial fertilizers are peculiarly suitable for ap- 
plying on permanent meadows from year to year. On 
these, there is a place in one locality or another for the 
application of nearly every kind of useful commercial 
fertilizer brought into the market. But which should 



MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 433 

be applied alone or in combinations, the amount to apply 
and the quantities in which they should be applied, can 
only be determined by the attendant conditions in each 
instance. In a work such as this generalizing on such 
a subject is all that would be prudent or even possible 
to do. 

The needs of permanent meadows seldom call for the 
application of other kinds of plant food than nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash ; some need only one of these, 
some want two and some want all three. As to the 
chief of the forms in which they usually come into the 
market, see p. 393. It is seldom that more than 800 
pounds of commercial fertilizer are applied on perma- 
nent meadow lands in one year, and more frequently 
less than one-half or one-third the amount is applied. 
In the East and South, it is, of course, much more es- 
sential to apply these than in the West and North. For 
many situations, equal parts by weight of nitrate of 
soda, finely ground bone, phosphatic rock and muriate 
of potash, serve a good end ; more frequently in purely 
grass meadows, a large portion of nitrogen or phosphate 
is wanted, in some instances, more of one of these than 
of the other two combined. The phosphate and potash 
are probably best applied in the autumn and a part of 
the nitrogen in the spring and the remainder soon after 
the hay is cut. The object of the second dressing is to 
stimulate the grass to produce another cutting. In or- 
der to make large dressings of fertilizer profitable, it is 
necessarv to have a 2;ood thick stand of the grasses. 
otherwise much of the strength of the fertilizer may ero 
toward sustaining weeds. 



434 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Permanent meadows seldom require renewing, when 
properly fertilized. Alfalfa, however, sometimes be- 
comes weedy ; when it does, disking in early fall or in 
spring, according to locality, sowing more seed, and then 
harrowing are very frequently followed by renewal. In 
some instances, as on sandy or gravelly soils, the grasses 
may fail in certain parts. When they do, disk them in 
those parts, sow more seed at the best season of the year 
for sowing it, and dress with fine manure. Treat simi- 
larly spots that may have winter killed because of ice. 
Yet again, when ploughing and harrowing may be neces- 
sary, as in the cases of Russian brome and Bermuda 
grass, renew these in that way as often as necessary. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 

The pastures of the western ranges are of immense 
extent, as are also those of western Canada. Roughly 
speaking, it would be correct to say that they embrace 
considerably more than one-third of the entire surface 
of the United States and even a larger proportion of 
the northwestern provinces of Canada. 

The Range States. — The distinctive range states in- 
clude Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Ari- 
zona, Utah, Nevada and Idaho. The range country 
also includes western North and South Dakota and the 
western portions of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and 
Texas, also the eastern portions of California, Ore- 
gon and Washington. The range pastures cover from 
about one-third to two-thirds of the states named, as 
being partly range, the other portions being arable. 

The Range Country Described. — This region is cov- 
ered with immense areas of mountains, table land and 
plain, with a considerable area classed as valley land 
beside the streams. The plains, which lie in great part 
eastward from the mountains are destitute of trees, 
except beside the streams which flow through them 
and which are fed by the melting snows upon the moun- 
tains. They are usually, but not always sufficiently 
even in surface, to admit of cultivating the soil and 



436 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

growing crops upon it. Over the greater portion of 
this area, these cannot be grown because of the limited 
precipitation, which characterizes all this region. It 
varies from 12 to 15 inches per annum downward to 
almost nothing. This entire area is covered with short 
grasses, which make their growth soon after the pre- 
cipitation for the season comes, and then cure where 
they grow, in which condition they furnish excellent 
winter grazing, when present in sufficient quantity. 

Between the most easterly and westerly ranges of the 
Rocky mountains are vast stretches of mountains, table 
lands or bench lands as they are more frequently called, 
and plains. These also are covered, more or less, with 
grasses, being dense or thin according to the measure 
of the precipitation and the extent to which sand, sta- 
tionary or shifting is present; to proximity to seep- 
age waters from the mountains and to the heat of the 
summer climate. Northward in this area, the precipi- 
tation is usually more than southward, and the summer 
heat is less intense; consequently, the grazing is usu- 
ally more abundant. Grass production decreases with 
the abundance of sand or gravel, and where the sands 
shift, it is virtually absent. 

But where seepage waters abound and come near 
the surface, grass production is abundant. The 
sides of the mountains furnish much grazing until 
trees clothe them, a condition which increasingly pre- 
vails with increasing altitudes, until the upward limit of 
tree growth is reached, beyond which are realms of 
rock and snow. The production of this region is not 
unlike that of the plains east of the mountains, but 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 437 

especially southward, it is less abundant, a large por- 
tion of the country being destitute of vegetation or 
producing only cactus plants and sage brush, neither of 
which are valuable as food. 

Soils of the Range Country. — The soil in the larger 
portion of the range country is abundantly supplied 
with plant food. Much of it is possessed of amazing 
productive power could it only be supplied with moist- 
ure. The secret of this fertility lies chiefly in its 
origin. Much of it has been made by volcanic action. 
But it has also been made more fertile, through the 
accumulation of vegetable matter, which decayed upon 
its surface through long ages, of which it lost but 
little from precipitation, washing over its surface or 
reaching down into the subsoil. To the summit of 
the mountains, nearly all the soil is fertile ; even the 
shifting of sands can be made to produce liberally, 
if kept wet by fertilizing waters. Northward, sand 
is not nearly so much in evidence as southward. In 
some parts, are considerable areas, so strongly impreg- 
nated with alkali that nothing will grow on them, es- 
pecially is this true of the regions where salt lakes 
abound. 

Climate of the Range Country. — The climate in 
much of the range country is dry; more dry usually 
east of the eastern range of the Rocky mountains, than 
elevated portions. The snow-fall is usually light also, 
north ; and more dry in the lower valleys, than on the 
elevated portions. The snow fall is usually light also, 
but much of the range country is exposed to occasional 
winter blizzards, in some instances of great severity, 



438 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

and which bring much suffering to the herds and 
flocks, which frequently ends in great financial losses. 
In some instances, these blizzards come quite late in 
spring, as late as May in Montana. At such times, 
sheep and lambs sometimes perish in large numbers. 
The temperature of the range country is considerably 
milder in winter, than corresponding latitudes east- 
ward, owing doubtless to the influence of the Pacific. 
With sufficiently plentiful surplus of grass, horses and 
cattle could winter safely on the pastures in all the 
range country, were it not for two influences, which, 
when they act in conjunction, make the wintering of 
stock, more or less hazardous. These are snow-fall, 
partially melted with "chinook winds," and then sud- 
denly coated with a crust of ice, caused by rapidly 
falling and low temperatures. These "chinooks" are 
warm winds, which blow at irregular and not infre- 
quent intervals. Were it not for these, no live stock 
could graze north in winter. The pastures are thus 
rendered inaccessible, insomuch that if low tempera- 
tures prevail for any considerable period of time, the 
animals cannot graze and so literally starve. When 
the weather immediately following is of unusual se- 
verity, as sometimes happens, j)articularly in ranges 
northward, they perish in great numbers. Driven be- 
fore the winds, they seek the shelter of willows and 
other bushes by the streams and die slowly from cold 
and hunger. The sufferings of live stock, thus ex- 
posed and left to die a lingering and cruel death, forms 
one of the darkest chapters in the industrial history 
of this country. These cold winters only come occa- 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 439 

sionally but they come with sufficient frequency to man- 
ifest the wisdom of furnishing food supplies to meet 
such exigencies. 

Grazing on the Open Range. — Until within a com- 
paratively recent period, the range country was al- 
most entirely public domain. Even now the same may 
be said of by far the greater portion of it. Every 
citizen, therefore, had an equal right to graze live 
stock on the range; when it was comparatively unoccu- 
pied, the business proved highly remunerative. This 
led to so great an increase in the number of those who 
engaged in ranching, that in time the ranges became 
overstocked with results as stated later. (See p. 445.) 
A common practice at the first was to purchase chiefly 
young store stock and animals for breeding; to brand 
them; and to turn them out at large on the ranges. 
Horses and cattle were managed thus but, of course, 
sheep had to be accompanied by a herder. The many 
losses, attendant upon this method of ranching, from 
various causes, have led to a modification of the sys- 
tem of ranching, somewhat as follows: Individuals 
took up claims in some favored spot, where water and 
shelter were obtainable, and where wild hay could be 
obtained on the low lands, or tame hay, grown usually 
through the aid of irrigation. Steadings were built 
and live stock were introduced, usually in a small way 
at first, and these were bred from, and the animals 
sold when ready, or shipped to the eastern markets. 
The stock were grazed in summer upon the adjoining 
ranges, sometimes owned privately but more frequently 
public domain. Seldom were they allowed to stray 



440 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

away far enough to become lost, and in winter when 
necessary, they were fed hay, provided for them in sum- 
mer. This method of ramming is rapidly superseding 
the open range system, an in time will probably super- 
sede it entirely. 

Carrying Capacity of Western Ranges. — When the 
ranges were first grazed by domestic animals, their car- 
rying capacity was considerably more than at the pres- 
ent time. The grazing was much more abundant then 
than now on the greater portion of the range. The 
grasses or many of them were famed, and justly so, 
for their nutrition. But they were short and thin 
in proportion as moisture was wanting. In places 
only where moisture was plentiful was there a stiff 
turf formed. Upon much of the range, the grass 
plants grew independently, as it were, without any 
crowding and the relative number of the plants de- 
creased with increasing hardness of conditions, until 
in some localities but few plants appeared among the 
sage bushes, and finally that stage was reached in places, 
where the country was desert. At no time probably 
could one cattle beast be sustained for a year on less 
than 10 acres on an average, from produce grown upon 
the untilled range. At the present time, the carrying 
power of the range is much less than it was years ago. 
But the change in ranching referred to, is likely to 
modify this process and in the end greatly increase 
the carrying power of the range. 

The Range Country in Canada. — It would not be cor- 
rect to say of any province in Canada that it is en- 
tirely a range country, as in all the provinces where 



Pastures on the range. 44i 

ranges exist, a considerable proportion of the land will 
grow crops under suitable cultivation. The range coun- 
try occupies parts of Assiniboia, Alberta, Saskatche- 
wan, Athabasca, and Britn ,1 Columbia. The relative 
area is probably greater in Assiniboia and Alberta than 
in any of the other provinces of Canada. The ranges 
are on the whole more productive than the average of 
the American ranges, and since the summer climate 
is cooler they are covered with a more abundant turf. 
Moreover, they are less injured through overgrazing as 
they are newer. The ranchmen, profiting by Ameri- 
can experience, came early to an understanding as to 
which parts should be grazed by sheep and which by 
cattle and this also has had the effect of protecting the 
ranges, as well as preventing feuds between sheep and 
cattle owners and their herdsmen. As on the ranges 
in American states northward, some food is usually 
needed in winter; strange to say the mean winter tem- 
peratures on the Canadian ranges of Assiniboia and 
Alberta, especially the latter, are not so low as those 
of Montana and Dakota, although further north. The 
explanation is found in the greater extent to which 
"chinooks" prevail in winter. Some authorities claim 
that these have access to the interior through the lower 
elevation of the mountains east of Port Simpson. 

GRASSES FAILING ON THE WESTERN RANGES. 

On many portions of the range, the grasses have 
failed to such an extent that, as previously intimated, 
their sustaining capacity has been much reduced. The 

Grasses 29. 



442 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

extent of such reduction, the causes that have led to it, 
and the necessity, because of this, for a change in the 
old-time system of grazing;, will now be discussed. 

The Extent to which Grasses Have Failed. — While 
the carrying capacity of the range has been much re- 
duced in the aggregate, this reduction, by no means, ap- 
plies equally to all parts of the range. On such por- 
tions of it as are possessed of a clay loam soil, and 
over which the grasses have formed a reasonably stiff 
turf, the sustaining power of the pastures is not much 
reduced. Much of the range country in the northern 
states and also in Canada is of this class. On those 
areas, however, covered with soils, volcanic in origin 
and which are easily disturbed by the treading of live 
stock, the grasses have, in many places, grown thin 
gradually, until they have almost or entirely disap- 
peared. Wide areas exist, which at one time produced 
reasonably good pastures, that are now absolutely bare. 
These areas are chiefly found in portions of the central 
and southern range states. In other localities, plants 
of little or no economic value have taken possession of 
the grazing lands in a greater or lesser degree. 

There has also been a shrinkage in the producing of 
what has been termed hay meadow lands, from which 
winter food supplies have been gathered. Through 
such shrinkage, the carrying power of the range has 
been reduced in the aggregate, according to some esti- 
mates looked upon as conservative to the extent of 20 
to 30 per cent. 

Causes of Failure in Range Grasses. — Chief among 
the causes that have led to reduction in the producing 



PASTURES ON TRE RANGE. 443 

power of the ranges are the following: 1. Injury 
from close grazing. 2. Injury from the treading of 
animals while grazing. 3. Injury from too constant 
£>Tazino\ 

On many parts of the range, the conditions are such 
that under the most favored treatment, the grasses have 
to struggle for existence, when cropped closely "because 
of that inseparable relation which exists between top 
and root development. The shade which the grasses 
provide for themselves, when undisturbed is removed, 
and the hot sun so saps away the moisture that more 
or less of the plants succumb. 

Far greater, however, is the injury from treading, es- 
pecially is this true of soils, which readily disinte- 
grate. The treading of animals upon them turns them, 
more or less, into dust and the plants perish. These 
results follow more readily and certainly from the 
grazing of sheep, than from the grazing of cattle, and 
they are intensified with increase in the range flocks. 
They not only feed closely together, but they are con- 
stantly on the move. When they huddle together in 
the heat of the day, in order to get the head lowered 
into the shade, furnished by the bodies of their fellows, 
they still keep up the movement of the feet. In those 
light and dry soils, the grasses are thus trodden out of 
existence. Through such grazing wide stretches of 
range lands, where growth at the best was almost peril- 
ous, have been turned for the time being into deserts. 
The sheep has been characterized as the animal with 
the golden hoof and justly so, because of the beneficial 
influence which it has ordinarily on pastures, in clean- 



444 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ing, enriching and improving them generally, but this 
is not true of sheep in certain of the range pastures. 
The golden hoof in these is turned into an instrument 
of destruction. To these results, however, there are 
exceptions for, on some portions of the range, judicious 
pasturing with sheep is beneficial in degree, rather 
than harmful. Such are the portions of the range 
that have a close turf. 

But the injury from too constant and unintermittent 
grazing has been greater than from too close grazing. 
Although many of the range grasses are perennial, they 
are propagated by means of seed only. The very dry 
portions of the range are ill-adapted to the sustenance 
of plants that increase chiefly by means of creeping 
root-stocks. With these the number of the plants is 
too great for each one to get enough of the scant sup- 
ply of moisture to sustain them. The fact is sigificant 
that in the greater portion of the range country, the 
grasses have fibrous, rather than creeping roots. They 
multiply by means of seed. The further fact is sig- 
nificant that these are free producers of seed, thus ac- 
centuating the fact that the necessity for re-seeding the 
ranges is ever recurring, where the productive power 
of the grasses is to be maintained. The grama grasses 
especially, which are among the best of the range grass- 
es, are free producers of seed. When the grazing is 
constant and close, seed production is hindered in pro- 
portion as these influences are present. Such grazing 
has done more harm to the range pastures than prob- 
ably all other influences combined. The question nat- 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 445 

urally arises in this connection, can the grasses of the 
range be renewed ? 

RENEWING THE GRASSES OF THE RANGES. 

It is very evident from what has been said, first, that 
the sustaining power of range pastures has decreased, 
and second, that unless the protection is provided in 
some form this power must further decrease. It may be 
well, therefore, to consider: (1) Is renewal of range 
pastures practicable? (2) Is it practicable, without 
modification in the systems of grazing? (3) Which are 
the modifications that will make it practicable ? 

Is Renewal Practicable? — Unquestionably the re- 
newal of range pastures is practicable, however diffi- 
cult the work may prove. Nature without man's aid, 
clothed these areas with food plants, each locality with 
those best adapted to it. What nature has done, it 
can do again without man's aid, but unaided by man, 
the work of re-clothing with vegetation, in part or in 
whole, will be slow. With man's aid, as when he scat- 
ters seed upon it, renovation will be much more rapid. 
In the judgment of the author, it is both possible and 
practicable to restore the productive power of the ranges, 
although such restoration, in many instances, will not 
be easy and, in nearly all, will be slow. 

Renewal Not Practicable without Modifications. — 
That the renewal of the ranges is not practicable under 
the old system of open range grazing, will be at once 
apparent to. those who understand the range country. 
It will not be practicable for the reasons, first, that 
while the range remains public domain and its priv- 



446 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ileges are common property, it is almost certain th.at 
it will be overstocked; second, that while it is public 
domain and thus overstocked, the grasses cannot re- 
seed the land sufficiently to maintain themselves without 
diminution ; and third, that while it remains public- 
property, the incentive to protect the range grasses is 
not practicable. Without modications in the system 
of ranching, therefore, the thing that hath been is that 
which shall be. The sustaining power of the ranges 
must grow less and less. 

Modifications Thai Arc Necessary. — If the range 
pastures are to be protected and renewed, it is very evi- 
dent from what has been said that this can be done only 
under private ownership. Such ownership would not 
only interest the individual, in protecting the grasses, 
but also in improving them. Two methods at least can 
be given attention, both of which should materially 
farther the end sought. The first is the fencing of the 
ranges and thus protecting them, and the second is 
supplementing the seed produced, when the grazing is 
alternated, by adding more seed or by sowing seed in 
some instances even where the ranges arc not fenced. 
That the renewal of the ranges is attended with no little 
difficulty will now be shown. 

DIFFICULTIES IX THE WAY OF RENEWING TILE RANGES, 

The chief difficulties in the way of renewing the 
ranges arise from the vastness of the area occupied, 
from the relatively low production of range pastures, 
and from the scant supplies of moisture. These oh- 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 447 

stacles will materially influence all attempts at renewal, 
whether the.se are made through fencing in the ranges, 
through adding seed of -suitable grasses, or whether re- 
newal is attempted by substituting other grasses for 
those now on the range. 

Renewal through Fencing. — In the judgment of the 
author, renewal through fencing and alternating the 
grazing is by far the most practical method of the 
three. The ranges are protected, not only by a fence 
running around each ranch, but when the ranches are 
subdivided so that one year some of the pastures may 
lie allowed to re-seed the ground, the stock in the mean- 
time, grazing in other enclosures, the seed that falls 
from the former should prove effective in sufficiently 
thickening the grasses. The next year, the stock can 
be grazed on these, while in the other pastures seeds 
are maturing. How frequently it would be necessary 
to have them thus re-seed the land, has not been dem- 
onstrated, but there is no doubt that the necessity for 
such protection, and re-seeding would decrease with 
the increase in supplies of moisture and vice versa. In 
some places, it would probably be necessary to thus 
rest the grasses every second year and yet again every 
third year would suffice. 

Such fencing, however, is relatively costly. Materi- 
als for fencing are not plentiful and transportation of 
materials long distances is expensive. These things, 
taken in connection with the relatively low sustaining 
power of the range, will be found a considerable item 
in the expenses of the ranchman and, so far, a re- 
ducing factor in his profits. The further difficulty will 



448 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

also have to be met of finding ample supplies of water 
for the live stock in each area so enclosed. The method 
of re-seeding, through limited stocking of the enclosed 
range, would also prove effective and it may be the 
cheaper of the two in the end. By low stocking is 
meant keeping down the number of animals kept with- 
in the enclosure, so that a portion of the plants would 
produce seed from time to time. 

Renewal through Sowing Seed. — The obstacles in the 
way of sowing seed by hand are serious. First, about 
the only range grass producing seed that is cultivated is 
western rye (Agropyrum tenerum). The cultivation of 
this grass is as yet very limited, hence the amount of 
seed put upon the market is small. The amount of 
seed that will yet be grown for many years to come 
will be an almost inappreciable factor in re-seeding the 
range. It would be possible for the ranchman to grow 
his own seed, especially if he could command irrigat- 
ing waters, but difficulties would attend harvesting the 
seed under range conditions, except in a wholesale way. 
Renewal by this method must be very slow for years to 
come. 

Renewal by Substitution. — Even greater difficulties 
attend the renewal of the ranges by substituting other 
grasses for those now on the range. This has been 
advocated, not only where the grasses have failed, but 
where they have not, and with a view of increasing the 
productive power of the range. First, no variety, the 
adaptability of which to range conditions has been 
proved, is as yet cultivated except in a more or less 
limited way, It will, therefore, be impossible to obtain 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 449 

much seed for several years. If the seeds of these 
grasses are to become so plentiful, as to exercise an ap- 
preciable influence on range improvement, they must be 
grown under conditions such as will produce large quan- 
tities of seed. If such renewal should effect im- 
provement for many years the progress must needs 
be very slow. Second, the number of grasses which 
promise any improvement, through substitution is very 
limited. Only three of these at the present time would 
seem possessed of such promise. These are western 
rye, blue grama and Russian brome. While in some 
instances, all three may be an improvement upon range 
grasses ; in others, this is, by no means, an assured 
fact. To illustrate : It is by no means certain, that 
western rye grass will prove more suitable for the 
central range states, than the species of buffalo grass 
(Bucliloe dactyloides) which has grown on them to so 
great an extent in the past, nor is it an assured fact, 
that Russian brome would be an improvement over 
the grasses now on northern ranges, though it should 
be grown on these. The former would doubtless make 
a better turf on the central ranges and the latter on 
those of the North, but in either case would the moist- 
ure be enough to sustain the grass growing on such a 
turf to make it more productive than grasses which oc- 
cupy the soil ? Would the Russian brome furnish the 
winter grazing desired, in as good form as the bunch 
grasses, which now grow and cure upon those ranges ? A 
negative answer to each question must be looked for. 
Again would Russian brome not grow so thickly under 
some conditions, that it in turn would require renewal 



450 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

through ploughing occasionally ( This would not be 
practicable under range conditions except in a limited 
way because of the great extent of the ranges. Third, is 
it possible to supplant other grasses by these without 
ploughing the land ( When a turf now covers the 
ranges, this is doubtful. If the land has to be ploughed 
to make such substitution possible, the element of im- 
practicability comes again to the front. 

Substitution through sowing the seed of blue gram a 
grass is more hopeful, especially in the central and 
southwestern range states, where the turf is not usu- 
ally dense. This grass would seem to have special 
power to establish itself under such conditions, even 
when the precipitation is light. But the impossibility 
of getting supplies of seed in a large way, at the pres- 
ent time, is an insurmountable obstacle in the way of 
such substitution ; sometime in the future, however, 
this may be different. All the evidence points to the 
conclusion, under existing conditions, that the best way 
of improving range grasses, at present, is by some sys- 
tem of alternation in grazing, which makes possible the 
re-seeding of the land by grasses now growing upon 
the same. The production of lands, that can be tilled, 
can almost invariably be improved by substitution, but 
it is not so of much of the land that cannot be tilled. 

THE FUTURE OF THE WESTERN RANGES. 

The changes that are being brought about by the irri- 
gation of irrigable lands will exorcise an important in- 
fluence upon the productive power of the ranges. The 
vast quantities of food thus grown, along with the pri- 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 451 

vate ownership of the lands, will make it possible to 
greatly increase the productiveness of the range coun- 
try. 1. It will make the protection of the ranges easi- 
er. 2. It will enable the ranchman to rear much of 
the stock which he grazes. 3. It will enable him to 
dispose of it at an earlier age. 4. It will enable him 
to fatten a considerable proportion of it at home. 

Making Easier the Protection of the Ranges. — Irri- 
gation will make such protection possible, by increas- 
ing the food supplies. In winter especially, animals 
will be fed instead of grazed. This will spare the 
grasses for summer grazing and it will also make it 
easier to re-seed them by allowing seed to ripen in the 
pastures. The immense quantities of alfalfa and other 
food that can be grown on irrigated land will make this 
easily practicable. 

Rearing Stock on the Ranges. — Until recently, ranch- 
men favored purchasing young animals to grow upon 
the range. This, at least, was true of cattle. They 
did so because of the difficulty in getting food sup- 
plies to feed young stock, also their dams, on the range 
in winter. The produce of the natural meadows grad- 
ually grew less with retrogression in pasture produc- 
tion, owing to cutting too frequently, in conjunction 
with over grazing. Experience had demonstrated that, 
if calves were to be reared on the range, feeding them 
the first winter was an imperative necessity. This is 
new easily practicable in all irrigated centres. 

Disposing of Stock at a Young Age. — The winter 
supplies thus grown, will enable the ranchman to dis- 
pose of animals at an age younger than would be prac- 



452 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

ticable in the absence of these. Cattle sold at three 
years, in the absence of such supplies, may be sold at 
two years, when they are present. A whole year of 
what is usually termed the food of maintenance may 
thus be saved, in the rearing of each cattle beast, grown 
on the ranges. This arises from continuity in growth, 
made possible in winter, as well as in summer. Young 
cattle, grazing on the open range, will do little more 
than maintain themselves during the winter months; 
when fed upon alfalfa, they make substantial gains. It 
will be possible, therefore, to save, in the aggregate, 
the food of maintenance for one year of every cattle 
beast, grown on the range. In other words, it will 
make it possible to use such quantities of food, in the 
aggregate, at one time used as food of maintenance, in 
growing meat, thus making the ranges just that much 
more productive. 

Fattening Stock on the Ranges. — Formerly stock 
could not be fattened on the ranges in the very best 
form, since grass was the only food grown. Xow in 
addition to the fodder, grown under irrigation in the 
valleys much grain is also being grown. This makes 
it possible to finish live stock in the range country, 
before shipment and the proportion that will be thus 
finished will increase with the increase of such pro- 
duction thus adding to the profits of the ranchman. 
But it is not probable that the time will ever come, 
when all the stock, grown on the range, will or can 
be finished there. The disproportion between the un- 
irrigable and irrigable lands is too great to admit of 
snch a result, hence it will always be possible for the 



PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 453 

range to supply, more or less of feeding stock to farm- 
ers further east. Viewed, therefore, from the stand- 
point of actual production in the range grasses in their 
aggregate form; that of the great possible increase in 
production in the range country, and the relation, which 
range grasses must bear to this increase; and from 
that of the almost insuperable difficulties in the way 
of substituting other grasses, for those now growing 
on the range, the proper preservation of these, as pre- 
viously intimated, is certainly a matter of national im- 
portance. 



8 



